Information about maps and literature on cartography. Cartobibliography

Analysis and assessment of map quality

The quality of a map is determined by: its content - completeness and correspondence to reality, accuracy, modernity; scale and other elements of the mathematical basis (the appropriateness of their choice), design (the perfection of visual means), and in general - the scientific validity and ideological orientation of the map.

Reliability– the ability to reliably perform various functions under certain conditions with the required accuracy within a specified period of validity. Efficiency– economic use of cards with the least amount of labor and time.

Card rating:

1) analysis of the mathematical basis - the appropriateness of the chosen scale, projection, layout;

2) the feasibility of the map;

3) assessment of the completeness of the content:

List of content elements (in the legend);

Selection of features for classification;

Degree of fractionation;

Cartographic image– a spatial combination of cartographic signs perceived by the map reader.

4) reliability analysis:

Correct application of the selected classification;

Preservation of typical features and characteristics;

Validity of image methods;

Correctness of generalization;

5) analysis of the modernity of the map

6) assessment of the quality of card design:

Image visibility;

Visual clarity of the image (imagery, accessibility of identification by visual associations);

7) analysis of the scientific value of the map.

Cartographic bibliography– publication of various indexes, lists and reviews of maps. This publication facilitates the selection of maps when performing scientific or practical work. Among the publications that differ in the completeness of the description, we note registration indexes and annotated indexes.

Registration signs take into account existing maps, provide complete, quick and timely information about newly published or received maps. They contain for each work the minimum information necessary for its identification. Annotated indexes are not limited to formal data and contain annotations for all or most of the maps - brief information on the content, purpose and features of the map.

Based on territorial coverage, international, national and local history indexes are distinguished; By topic, indexes can cover the entire variety of maps or be limited to certain types. There are also periodic and retrospective (one-time) indicators.

Special view Information activities are represented by scientific information literature as processing of primary scientific publications and brief information about new research (for example, “Results of Science and Technology. Cartography”).

The main trend in the development of cartographic bibliography in recent years is its automation.

The use of maps is a section of cartography in which the features and directions of application of cartographic works are studied to obtain qualitative and quantitative characteristics, dynamics, etc. the phenomena depicted on them.

Maps have been used to obtain certain information for a very long time. Mercator placed on one of the sheets of his map insets devoted to measuring distances on the map. In the XVIII-XIX centuries. Based on maps, many geographical laws and global patterns were derived, in particular the law of zonation (A. Humboldt, article “Isotherm Lines”), soil zonation (V.V. Dokuchaev), tectonics of lithospheric plates (A. Wegener).

Cartographic research method– a method of using maps to understand the phenomena depicted on them; inclusion in the process of researching the reality of an intermediate link - a geographical map as a model of the phenomenon being studied. As a result of such research, a derivative map is often obtained.

System "creation - use of cards"

Methods for using cards:

1. Descriptions (qualitative characteristics of the depicted phenomena): general, element-by-element;

2. Graphic techniques: two-dimensional graphs, diagrams; three-dimensional models;

3. Graphic-analytical techniques: cartometry, morphometry (measurements and calculations using maps);

4. Mathematical modeling (construction and analysis of mathematical models using maps): mathematical analysis, mathematical statistics, information theory.

Levels of mechanization and automation:

1. Visual analysis;

2. Instrumental analysis;

3. Semi-automatic research;

4. Automatic research.

Other common methods of using maps include working with series of maps, as well as research analog cards(transfer of patterns studied on the map of one territory to the map of another territory).

Closely related to the use of maps is the issue of the reliability of the cartographic method. Reliability– the ability of the method to provide the correct solution to the problem.

Errors during research can have various origins. Conceptual errors are associated with insufficient validity of the initial concepts, violation of the logic of the study and interpretation of the results. Communication errors arise in the channels of information transfer from researcher to researcher. Technical errors appear during measurements, transformations, and calculations due to various failures, omissions, and confusion. Cartographic errors are associated with inconsistency with the goals and objectives of the study of the main indicators of the reliability of the source maps: their modernity, completeness, content reliability, geometric accuracy. The geographical features of the object have a great influence on reliability.

According to the accuracy of the results obtained, all studies using maps are divided into accurate, medium accuracy and approximate.

Along with the mathematical and statistical cartographic method, it studies the initial information and has various ways of processing it. This is how research is carried out using construction geographical maps with special figurative-sign spatial models. The cartographic method is indispensable in the system of methods for studying population, for example.

Earth model

On geographical maps - reduced generalized images of the plane of the earth's surface - connections, combinations, and placement of objects and phenomena are clearly visible, which are selected and characterized according to the purpose of the map. The cartographic method is used in geography, ethnography and a number of other sciences, as well as in practical activities, since it is highly informative, visual and metric, that is, accessible to various kinds measurements.

For example, information about demography and settlement of peoples is also contained in the so-called topographic maps(general geographical). Such maps became widespread in the middle of the 19th century. They show density, numbers, even settlement potential, types of settlements, composition and reproduction of people, their migration and much more.

What types of cards are there?

To study the planet's population, there are anthropological and ethnographic maps, where you can observe the settlement of peoples, the spread of national cultures, way of life, and anthropometric characteristics. The importance of the cartographic method in the study of social and economic characteristics is very great; the maps show the social situation, the standard of living in the regions, labor resources, their use and much, much more.

In cartography, a special symbolic system is used, special methods of representation - cartographic, with icons, diagrams, cartograms, a point method is used, areas, isolines, different background qualities, signs of movement - significant or spatial, reflecting the properties of objects. A geographic map can be physical, political, geological, landscape, and so on. There are quite a lot of species.

Classification

The map is classified by geography by its purpose or by territorial basis, by scale, by content. The last one is the most important. It is the content that classifies a particular map as a thematic or general geographical type. First of all, you need to look at the territorial coverage: it depicts a separate region, country, continent, or is it a world map. Next - methods cartographic image, including scale. There are small-scale, medium-scale and large-scale maps. Of course, the accuracy and detail will vary.

It is important to know the purpose of the card, that is, what it is intended for. If there is a use of geographic maps for scientific analysis, these are scientific reference maps. Designed to popularize ideas or individual knowledge - cultural and educational. There are many types of educational maps that play the role of visual aids for studying sciences such as history, geography, geology and many other disciplines. Among them, contour maps occupy a special place.

If in the process of solving any technical problems it is necessary to display certain conditions and objects, use technical cards. Tourist maps are widespread, showing everything populated areas with landmarks, attractions, travel routes, places of rest, overnight stays, and so on by type of tourism. The methods of cartographic representation here are very similar to navigation and road maps.

Physical general geographical maps display everything related to geographical phenomena - all relief and all hydrography, characteristics of vegetation soil cover, all settlements and economic objects, all boundaries and communications. The State Cartography Service deals with both the registration of objects and the cadastre. This is Rosreestr. Large-scale physical maps with all terrain objects are called topographical, and the same medium-scale topographical overview. Small-scale physical maps are always overview only.

Subjects

Thematically, the cards differ significantly from each other. They can show everything - from the location of objects to the dynamics and interrelations of natural phenomena, from the social sphere and economy to population growth and decline. Maps can be divided thematically into two groups: those that explore natural phenomena, and those that are devoted to social phenomena. Cartography is a fairly ancient science; you can start studying it literally with rock paintings. But it really began to develop not so long ago. This process especially accelerated with the beginning of the exploration of airspace and space.

This is how they were compiled detailed maps natural phenomena that cover absolutely the entire natural environment in all its combinations. These are geological and geophysical maps, with details of the earth's surface and ocean floor, climatic and meteorological, botanical and oceanographic, soil and hydrological, maps of geographical and physical landscapes and minerals, and so on. Attention has already been paid to socio-political maps here, however full list They are also quite difficult to issue.

Methods of using cartography

In addition to maps that tell everything about the population, there are historical, political, economic and socio-geographical maps, and each of these subspecies also has a structural division that is very ramified. An example of a cartographic method in geography is economic maps. There is industry there - general and sectoral, and agriculture, and transport, and communications, and much more that is studied in detail. A special symbol system is always used, which is the basis of the cartographic research method in almost any science, and statistics always provide the material for cartographic work.

Of the methods of using maps in scientific analysis, many are used, among which the most relevant are graphical techniques, visual analysis, cartometric work (measuring coordinates, distances, calculating population density and uniformity of occurrence of minerals, etc.), mathematical and statistical analysis, mathematical modeling, construction of derivative maps after processing cartographic images, and so on. In any case, the basis of the cartographic research method is reliance on the accuracy and reliability of statistics.

Application

Scientific analysis today is impossible to imagine without the help of the cartographic method. The entire study of the Earth is built on it: geology, geography, geochemistry, geophysics, oceanology and all planetology, the research results are placed on maps, then they are summarized and analyzed. This is how new hypotheses are formed and formulated, and this is how forecasts are made and tested. Almost all branches of knowledge, to varying degrees, rely on mapping.

For example, geomorphology makes up the entire structure from information about the relief, which is obtained from topographic maps. And for medical geography, maps are compiled with the areas of occurrence of epidemics and diseases according to socio-economic and natural maps. The most striking example is planetary science. The patterns of the surface structure of our planet and any other celestial bodies are compiled on the basis of maps and photographs. This is how we get to know the ocean floor, where, just like in deep space, man has never been. The cartography method gives all sciences a single language with the help of which the world is cognized. Neither electronics, nor physics, nor technology can do without cartography, just like without mathematics.

Science connections

Almost all socio-economic, philosophical, natural, technical sciences and almost all scientific disciplines are closely connected with cartography, since interaction occurs with all branches of knowledge. The cartographic method of cognition is most closely related to the planetary sciences - geographical, environmental, geological and many others. The cartographer is armed with the knowledge that is necessary to correctly reflect the typical features, features, characteristics of certain phenomena that are included in the content of specific maps.

Sociology, economics, demography, history, archeology and other socio-economic sciences also provide thematic mapping with specific content. This is how new cartographic methods appeared - network planning, mathematical modeling, for example. In philosophy, this method is now based on the theory of reflection, the theory of modeling, logic, and system analysis. Concepts of cartography, sign system, modeling methods, system mapping have been developed.

Help from other sciences

Geodesy, topography, gravimetry, and astronomy provide the science of cartography with increasingly accurate data on the size and shape of the Earth and alien planets, which provides the basis for the compilation of thematic and physical (general geographic) maps. Mathematical analysis, trigonometry, geometry, statistics, probability theory and set theory, mathematical logic and other sciences are extremely widely used for constructing map projections, creating algorithms, mathematical cartographic modeling, using maps in programs, and in the development of information systems.

Instrument making, printing, electronics, laser and semiconductor technology, as well as many other industries are involved in the creation of cartographic systems. New sciences - remote sensing: space, underwater and aerial photography, image interpretation, photometry, photogrammetry, monitoring help compile and update maps, create digital information databases and participate in many other cartographic processes. Geoinformatics interacts most closely with cartography. Atlases and maps - here main source temporal and spatial information for modeling.

Methods and techniques

The cartographic method is always used to study patterns: how phenomena are spatially located, how they are interconnected, how dependent they are on each other, how they develop, and so on. There are a huge variety of techniques for analyzing and processing geographic maps, so only the most basic ones will be discussed here.

Visual analysis- this is when the spatial location, combinations, connections, and dynamics of each phenomenon are visually examined using maps. Graphical analysis- when profiles and sections are constructed from maps, giving visibility to the vertical of structural phenomena; block diagrams are constructed, which combine a perspective image of the area and vertical sections; various graphs and diagrams.

Cartometric works

Maps are used to determine coordinates, lengths, heights, distances, areas, volumes, angles and the like, that is, the quantitative characteristics of objects depicted on the map. Next, mathematical and statistical analysis is used to study the homogeneity of phenomena (temperature, population density, crop yield and any other parameters) to determine their location and changes over time, which are determined by many factors, and they are unknown.

Next comes the turn of mathematical modeling, which creates a spatial mathematical model, a description using mathematics of processes or phenomena based on initial data taken from maps. Then the model is studied, the phenomena are interpreted and explained, the maps are processed, transformed into derivatives that are convenient and intended for a particular study (for example, the steepness of slopes when studying soil erosion processes and predicting them).

Analysis

When maps of various contents are analyzed, conclusions about relationships and the limits of research in general expand significantly. This is a comprehensive mapping method. This is how topographic maps and thematic sectoral maps are compared - soil, geological, geobotanical and the like. For example, when studying natural relationships using soil and topographic maps of a particular region, it can be established that soil contours are most often confined to individual relief elements.

Salt marshes to lake depressions, also chernozems to the bottom of valleys and gullies, alluviality to river floodplains. Next, a pattern is determined in the pattern of soil contours: solonetzes and solonchaks are rounded, within the boundaries of old lake basins, meadow chernozem soils are horizontal, we can go on and on. Sometimes even visual analysis is enough to establish the first connections. Further cartometric work reinforces, refines and details the initial conclusions with qualitative and quantitative characteristics.

Use of maps and cartographic research method. Cartographic research method in the system of “creation and use of maps”

Geographic maps, reduced generalized images of the earth's surface on a plane, showing the location, combinations and connections of natural and social phenomena, selected and characterized in accordance with the purpose of the map. Defining Geographical maps only as a drawing of the earth's surface is not enough, since Geographical maps can display a wide variety of natural and socio-economic phenomena. Geographic maps are capable of conveying spatial changes in these phenomena over time. Geographic maps are characterized by: a special mathematical law of construction (cartographic projections), depiction of phenomena using a special sign system - cartographic symbols (cartographic signs), selection and generalization of depicted phenomena (cartographic generalization). Geographic maps can naturally be considered as visual figurative and symbolic models. They have the main features of models in general: abstraction from the whole to study a part - a specific territory, specific phenomena and processes; simplification, which consists in refusing to take into account many characteristics and connections and preserving some of the most significant ones; generalization, meaning the identification of common features and properties, etc. The cartographic research method is a method of using maps for scientific and practical knowledge of the phenomena depicted on them. The cartographic method is used to study the patterns of spatial distribution of phenomena, their relationships, dependencies and development. The variety of techniques for analyzing and processing maps, characteristic of the cartographic method, can be combined into the following main methods: 1. Visual analysis, which consists of direct visual research using maps of the spatial distribution, combinations, connections and dynamics of phenomena. 2. Graphic methods of analysis, consisting of constructing profiles and sections from maps (giving a visual representation of the vertical structure of phenomena), block diagrams (combining a perspective image of the area with its vertical sections), various kinds of graphs and diagrams (for example, hypsographic curves) and etc. 3. Cartometric work, which consists in determining from maps coordinates, distances, lengths, heights, areas, volumes, angles and other quantitative characteristics of objects depicted on the map (with an assessment of the accuracy of the results obtained). 4. Mathematical and statistical analysis used: a) to study maps of any homogeneous phenomena (air temperatures, rural population density, crop yields, etc.); etc.), their placement and temporary changes, determined by many factors with unknown functional dependence; b) to clarify the form and closeness of connections between various phenomena (by calculating correlation dependencies - correlation coefficients, correlation relationships, etc.). 5. Mathematical modeling, which aims to create spatial mathematical models, i.e., a mathematical description of phenomena (or processes) based on initial data taken from the map, and the subsequent study of models to interpret and explain the phenomena; in particular, a technique has been developed for composing approximating equations for surfaces - real (for example, the relief of the earth's surface) or abstract (for example, the annual layer of precipitation). 6. Processing (transformation) of maps to obtain derivative maps that are specifically designed and convenient for a specific study (for example, compiling a derivative map of slope steepness using a hypsometric map for studying and predicting erosion processes). The process of “creation - use of maps” is considered as a unified system of cartographic method of cognition (Salishchev). In theoretical cartography, the existence of two cartographic images has been proven - the first is created in the mind of the cartographer and embodied in the map, the second is formed by the consumer when working with the map. This implies the existence of 2 methods - the cartographic method of displaying reality (creating maps) and the cartographic method of studying reality (using maps). The task of the first method is to create a cartographic model, the second is its a posteriori use. The process of “creating and using maps” is presented as a system with numerous direct and feedback connections.

Research on maps is carried out to study the location and spatio-temporal structure of phenomena and processes, their mutual relationships and connections, determine development trends and dynamics, obtain all kinds of quantitative characteristics and assessments, carry out zoning and classifications, forecast changes in time and space.

Map research, like any other research, includes

several stages:

– statement of the problem – formulation of the goal, identification of subtasks, determination of accuracy requirements;

– preparation for research – selection of cartographic sources,

methods, technical means, algorithms, etc.;

– the research itself – obtaining preliminary and then final results and recommendations, their evaluation, creation of new maps;

– interpretation of results – meaningful analysis, drawing conclusions and recommendations, assessing their reliability.

Map research is always a more or less formalized procedure. At all stages it should be accompanied by a meaningful geographical analysis of the results obtained, their correlation with the real situation and, if necessary, adjustments to the research procedure.

Studying the structure of phenomena and processes using maps is the identification and analysis of their elements, location in space, configuration, order (level) and hierarchy. The ultimate goal of research is always to understand the spatial organization of geosystems and their genesis. Analysis and quantitative assessment of internal and external connections and interdependencies between geosystems, subsystems and individual components is one of the central tasks of the Earth sciences.

Using multi-temporal maps, on which the same objects are depicted at different points in time, it is possible to study the dynamics of phenomena and processes, that is, their emergence, development, change in time and movement in space.

Comparison of maps from different periods and maps of different subjects allows

move on to forecasts based on identified relationships and trends in the development of phenomena.

Forecasting from maps is considered as the study of phenomena and processes that are inaccessible to modern direct research.

There are three types of map forecasts:

– forecast over time, based on the study of dynamic trends using multi-temporal maps;

– forecast in space, based on relationships and analogies,

installed on maps of different themes;

– spatio-temporal forecast combining both of these

above the type of forecast and allowing to predict trends in the development and evolution of a phenomenon in the forecast space

FEDERAL STATE BUDGET EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION

HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION MOSCOW PEDAGOGICAL STATE UNIVERSITY

Faculty of Geography

Department of Physical Geography and Geoecology

Coursework

On the topic: "Cartographic research methods"

Moscow 2015

Introduction

Conclusion

Literature

Introduction

Purpose of the work: To analyze the use of cartographic research methods.

To achieve this goal, it is necessary to solve the following tasks: Study (consider) techniques for analyzing cartographic images, using and processing maps in the cartographic research method.

High level The development of modern cartography leads to a constant expansion of its interests. Continuing to improve the methods and techniques of mapping, developing new types of maps, cartographers pose and solve new problems. One such problem is the use of maps in scientific research and economic activity.

In cartography itself, the view has long been maintained that the main task of science is to study and develop methods and processes for creating and reproducing maps.

So, the cartographic method is understood as a branch of cartography that studies the use of maps to understand the phenomena depicted on them. The concept of this method was first formulated by K.A. Salishchev.

The applications of the cartographic research method are very diverse. It has become an integral part of most theoretical and practical research and has become one of the core methods of knowledge in the Earth sciences. Long-term experience has been accumulated in geology and morphology - sciences traditionally associated with topographic maps. Economic and geographical research has long been associated with maps. Geophysical sciences are unthinkable without constant analysis and processing of maps.

The method is developed using latest achievements cartography, mathematics, computer technology and automation, in close interaction with the methods of specific sciences. New original techniques for analyzing maps are constantly being sought, the technical base is being improved, and the range of problems being solved is expanding, ranging from problems of a general geographical nature to narrow sectoral research.

The most important condition for the development of the cartographic method should be considered the practical needs of individual branches of physical and economic geography, geology, geophysics and other branches of the Earth sciences. At the current level of theoretical development of these branches of knowledge, map analysis is used as one of the main research methods.

cartographic geographic atlas map

1. Techniques for analyzing cartographic images

1.1 Brief history cartographic research method

Every cartographic work has been created from ancient times to the present day for some practical or scientific purposes. First of all, it should be said about graphic images, the progenitors modern maps, used for orientation in space. For these needs, rock paintings, drawings on leather, wood, and wood or bone carvings were used. The main elements of such images were paths, rivers, streams, lakes, mountains, forests, places for hunting, collecting herbs, etc. As a rule, perspective drawings were used to show them, often with significant exaggeration of the most interesting elements of content or their details from the point of view of the compiler. Such images dating back to the 3rd-2nd millennium BC have been preserved. The Marshall Islanders created their first primitive nautical "charts" for navigation purposes. The material for them was shells, representing islands, which were attached to a frame made from cuttings of palm leaves. The position of the cuttings indicated the front of the sea swell raised by the prevailing winds, as well as changes as it passed through the island chain. This phenomenon was used by residents to determine the course to the island when it was out of sight.

Rice. 1.1 One of the first maps of the world, engraved on a silver plate.

Maps were needed to record the boundaries of hunting grounds and land plots, which was especially common during the development of new territories, for example in the Roman Empire, later church estates, etc. In the most ancient centers of civilization - Mesopotamia and Egypt - the construction of irrigation structures, the construction of temples or other structures was often preceded by the creation of corresponding plans. IN Ancient Greece cards were used in teaching, and in Ancient Rome- in military affairs and empire management. Moreover, the image of famous territories.

The Romans became more famous road maps, among them the so-called Peitinger table, which has survived to this day, is widely known - a strip 7 m long and about 30 cm wide, showing a vast territory from Britain to India. The main content of the table - the road network, cities, rivers, lakes, mountains - is greatly extended in the direction from west to east and compressed from north to south.

Later in the Middle Ages, with the widespread development of maritime trade, the need for maps for navigation increased sharply; Portolans achieved especially high accuracy in depicting the coastline. They were created starting from the 14th century. primarily in Italy and covered the Mediterranean and Black Seas. A special feature of the portolans was the grids of compass lines drawn on them from a number of points, which made it possible, using the compass invented by that time, to plot courses for ships, including on the open sea. The greatest flowering in nautical cartography, naturally, occurred during the period of the Great geographical discoveries XV--XVI centuries

A little earlier than portolans, so-called monastery maps appeared in Europe. K.A. Salishchev wrote that “the main purpose of monastery maps was to illustrate theological works. For example, on the map that accompanied the commentaries on the Apocalypse, Beatus showed the division of the Earth after the flood between the three sons of Noah. Such maps were picture drawings, only in the roughest form conveying the known in the Middle Ages, the world. Cartographic images of the world were of interest to their authors only to the extent that they corresponded to their religious views or explained the theological ideas they shared.”

The heyday of cartography in the Middle Ages is associated with the name of the Flemish cartographer Gerardus Mercator, who lived in 1512-1594. The cylindrical equiangular projection of the world map he created bears his name and is still used in marine cartography today. In this projection, G. Mercator compiled a map of the world known at that time, and also gave recommendations on how to use this map.

In Russia, cards are relatively large quantities began to be created and used by the beginning of the 16th century, which is associated with the needs of developing new territories that became part of the Russian state, and the need to protect its borders. Evidence of this is the inventory of the archives of Ivan IV (1575), which mentions many drawings necessary for the tsar’s policy of relations with the outside world. The “Big Drawing for the entire Moscow State”, covering the territory from the Dnieper to the Ob, served the same purposes.

The process of developing Siberia also required its mapping and study. Works by S.U. Remezov (1642 - after 1720) represent a historical and geographical encyclopedia of Siberia in the 17th century. S.U. Remezov, with the participation of his sons, prepared three atlases of Siberia. The main advantage of his maps is “the reliability of information and rich geographical content. In this regard, the cartographic works of the Tobolsk researcher were significantly superior to the later maps of Siberia by Peter the Great’s surveyors. In Remezov’s drawings, depicting a versatile physical and geographical image of the entire territory Siberia and saturated with a huge number of economic, ethnographic, political, historical, military, archaeological, statistical and other indicators, modern researchers rightly see the earliest manifestation of complex mapping."

In the last years of Peter I's life, work on state surveying of the country expanded widely. These works were headed by I.K. Kirilov (1696--1772), and later V.N. played a major role in improving the accuracy and quality of filming. Tatishchev. When standardizing filming work, V.N. Tatishchev paid great attention collecting geographical data and taking them into account when compiling “land maps”. Thus, in the instructions he compiled in 1738 there are two such positions:

For historical and geographical information, when you arrive in the city, demand information from the office about how long ago that city was built and for what reason, and ask smart people from that county to know their fortunes, their language, customs, art and food, what that county is rich in or what it lacks.

Regarding proper information, so that you can write down the special points about which you are inquiring against everyone, the officers sent to the provinces are also ordered to write the same note.”

This is already an example of a questionnaire, which is very useful for the geographical study of territories along with maps. At the beginning of the 19th century. The military took up field topographic surveys, and in 1822 the Corps of Military Topographers was created. Their surveys were subsequently used for land accounting and assessment, construction of automobile and railways. Similar work was carried out abroad, for example, in Canada, cadastral surveys of the late 19th century. or the work of the US Geological Survey, which paid great attention to the depiction of civil boundaries and relief.

One of the widest areas of use of maps was in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. There was cartometry, which was used to calculate the areas of provinces and districts of Russia, the length of rivers, the length of roads, etc. An outstanding scientist who was able to identify a number of geographical patterns on the basis of cartmetric work was Lieutenant General, Corresponding Member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences A.A. Tillo (1839--1899/1900). The hypsometric maps he created European Russia on scales of 1: 2,520,000 and 1: 1,680,000 served not only the author, who substantiated the idea of ​​​​the orography of this region, but also his many followers. A.A. Tillo showed the existence of the Central Russian and Volga uplands and gave them their existing names. A.A. Tillo conducted a comparative analysis of multi-temporal magnetic maps to study the magnetic fields of European Russia, which made it possible to identify the Kursk-Belgorod anomaly, anticipating the discovery of iron ore deposits.

The continuator of the work of A.A. Tillo became one of his students - Yu.M. Shokalsky, a versatile oceanographer and cartographer. He worked on the creation of hypsometric maps of the Asian part of Russia, carried out calculations of the areas of the provinces and the entire territory as a whole, as well as the basins of many large rivers of Siberia. Later Yu.M. Shokalsky measured the lengths of many rivers in the country and participated in the creation of the major “Great Soviet Atlas of the World.”

A huge amount of work on the analysis of hypsometric maps of European Russia was carried out by D.N. Anuchin. Based on maps created by A.A. Tillo and also geological maps he gave a remarkable geographical analysis of the patterns of relief development, summarized in the book “The surface relief of the European part of Russia in the consistent development of ideas about it.” Note that until the 19th century. The maps predominantly reflected general geographical elements. The need to create thematic maps began to appear mainly for scientific purposes. One of the first to realize the ability of maps to show abstract concepts was A. Humboldt. He introduced the concept of isotherms, which cannot be seen on the ground, and on their basis showed how it is possible to establish and record on a map the territorial differentiation of heat distribution, laying the foundation for the climate zoning of the Earth. Later he established vertical zonation in the vegetation cover. The works of V.V. were in the same vein. Dokuchaev, who gave a scientific classification of soils taking into account the genetic principle and soil formation factors, making extensive use of geographical maps. He also generalized ideas about the zonality of environmental components and formulated the doctrine of geographical zones.

P.P. made a great contribution to the field of socio-economic mapping. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky, who glorified his name not only with his famous travels, but with the organization of the first population census in Russia (1897), the results of which served as material for numerous population maps. Under his leadership, the reports "Geographical-Statistical Dictionary" were published Russian Empire" and "Russia. A complete geographical description of our fatherland", illustrated with various maps. In his work, P.P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky used all the best that had been created in the field of socio-economic mapping of that time, such as, for example, the "Map of Industry of European Russia" 1842 g., "Economic and statistical atlas of European Russia" 1851, etc.

The theory of continental drift and modern new global tectonics originate from the works of A.L. Wegener (1880-1930), who noticed, when analyzing maps, the similarity of the outlines of the coasts of Brazil and the Atlantic coast of Africa.

N.N.’s great contribution to economic cartography and the use of maps in socio-economic geography. Baransky. His bright, figurative language, ability to concentrate attention on the essence, depth and versatility of knowledge attracted many students and followers to him. Words by N.N. Baransky served and serve as epigraphs and titles of articles and books. Is it possible to say more clearly and clearly, expressing my attitude to cartography: “The map is the alpha and omega of geography, the beginning and end point of geographical research. The map is a means of identifying geographic patterns. The map is the “second language” of geography.” N. N. Baransky not only encouraged, but also constantly used maps to explain geographical relationships and patterns.

A.F. Aslanikashvili (1916-1981) made a significant contribution to the theory of cartography, the theory of cartographic generalization, to the creation of the Atlas of the Georgian SSR, and comprehensive mapping. He repeatedly examined the role of the cartographic method in geography and other sciences. Theoretical justification of the views of A.F. Aslanikashvili's approach to the cartographic method is discussed in the book "Metacartography. Main problems."

I.P. Zarutskaya (1908-1990) showed the role of a number of atlases created with her participation in complex geographical research. A great connoisseur of nature, she strove for an inextricable fusion of the cartographic method and specific geographical sciences.

The understanding of the cartographic method in its modern understanding belongs to K.A. Salishchev (1905 - 1988). The article “On the cartographic method of research” published by him in 1955 served as the starting point for his research and was continued by his many students (A.M. Berlyant, L.G. Rudenko, V.A. Chervyakov, etc.). There are repeated references to the cartographic method of research and the connections of cartography with the geographical sciences in the monograph summarizing the experience of the development of cartography and its prospects, as well as in a special chapter of the textbook on cartography.

The most striking views of K.A. Salishchev on the role of cartography in geographical research are outlined in the article “Cartography in the service of rational environmental management: status and tasks.” Using the example of ensuring work on rational environmental management, the role and directions of using state topographic and sectoral thematic maps, as well as comprehensive regional atlases, are shown. The methodology of using maps and atlases for geographical research, the role of a systematic approach in analyzing the structure of territorial natural, industrial and socio-natural complexes, the interrelationship and dynamics of their elements using maps are shown.

1.2 The concept of the cartographic research method

The development of cartography has always been determined by the needs of life. Since school years, the map has been familiar to every person. She is a common occurrence in our lives. But it is precisely this routine that often leads to a simplified view of the map, its underestimation, and incomplete use of the possibilities inherent in it. It is important not only to have good map, but also be able to work with her, taking from her everything that she can give. Otherwise, the map will largely remain a thing in itself. Therefore, the development of issues related to the use of maps is one of the most important problems of cartography. Cartographic representation of the real world and its perception, i.e. the creation of maps and the study of reality from them are considered in modern cartography in mutual connection, as a single process.

Rice. 1.2 In cartographic production, obtaining a map.

Summarizing the variety of practical and scientific uses of maps, we can distinguish their five main functions: communicative for storing and transmitting spatial information, operational, related to the direct solution of various practical problems (for example, navigation, agricultural management, etc.); constructive - on the use of maps for the development and implementation of all kinds of national economic and social projects; cognitive - for spatio-temporal studies of natural and social phenomena and the acquisition of new knowledge about them; prognostic (as the development of cognitive) for predicting phenomena - their distribution, changes over time and future states.

Success in realizing the communicative function of cards largely depends on the methods of depiction and sign systems chosen for them, as well as the experience in reading cards acquired during their study and in the process of practical activity. The methodology for using maps in operational work and design is established by specialists who use maps, but the cartographer preparing these maps must know the requirements for them and the features of the methodology used. Methods for using maps as a means of knowledge and forecasting are developed by specialists in the relevant types of maps (geologists, geobotanists, climatologists, etc.) and cartographers working in the same sections of thematic cartography (geological, geobotanical, etc.). However, the general development of these methods is attributed to the tasks of cartographic science (just as the general development and improvement of mathematical methods, widely used by many sciences, belongs to mathematicians).

Cartographic study and research of reality consists of including an intermediate link in this process - a geographical map as a spatial model of the phenomena being studied. In this case, the map plays a dual role: as a means of research and as its subject in the form of a model that replaces real phenomena, the direct study of which is impossible or difficult. An example would be phenomena on a global scale. The conclusions and meanings obtained in this way (from the cards) relate to the corresponding objects of reality. We call the use of maps to describe, analyze and understand phenomena, to obtain new knowledge and characteristics about them, to study their spatial relationships and forecasts the cartographic research method.

The essence of cartographic research can be explained by identifying four successive stages of mapping and using maps:

) receiving information I1, i.e. information about the surrounding world, as a result of observing some part of reality D1 - its phenomena and processes;

) processing information I1 and constructing a map K - a spatial figurative-sign model of the part of reality being studied;

) studying (reading) map K to extract information I2 from it about the phenomena displayed on the map, if necessary, with additional processing of the data obtained from the map;

) mental formation in the researcher’s mind of an image D2 about the reality modeled on the map based on the information contained in the map and the knowledge and experience previously accumulated by the researcher. The 3rd and 4th stages form the actual cartographic research method. It is very important that at the 2nd and 3rd stages, not only unnecessary information is turned off, but also new information is obtained as a result of processing the data used - I1 and the card itself. At the 4th stage, an idea is created about the location, state, interrelations and dynamics of the shown phenomena, their new image, analysis and interpretation of which with the help of inductive and deductive conclusions leads to the expansion and enrichment of knowledge about the reality being studied. The simplest example- the topographer determines the heights and builds contour lines on the map based on them, and the geomorphologist uses the image in the contour lines to draw conclusions about the morphology and genesis of the relief. It is the possibility of obtaining new knowledge from maps that underlies the use of maps as a means of scientific research, in particular when developing hypotheses, forecasts, recommendations, etc.

Rice. 1.3 Methodology for field soil mapping.

Thus, in the cartographic study of reality, it is natural to distinguish between field and office mapping and the cartographic method of research - obtaining new data about reality using existing or specially created maps for it. The development of field and office mapping issues belongs to the tasks of topography (aerial topography), design and compilation of maps, as well as branch sections of thematic cartography. As for the methodology for using maps in scientific research and practice, it belongs to the range of concerns of cartography, but in its developed form it has acquired the significance of an independent cartographic discipline, and is also reflected in the branch sections of thematic cartography, where it has a clearly defined interdisciplinary character.

Field and office mapping are the competence of professional cartographers and specialists in the relevant branches of thematic cartography. The study of ready-made cards as models of reality in order to understand this reality is carried out by all consumers for whom specific cards are intended.

1.3 The essence of the problem. Basic functions of geographic maps

The cartographic research method is based on the analysis of maps as spatiotemporal models of reality. To study phenomena from their images on maps, various analysis techniques are used, among which are visual, cartometric, graphical and mathematical methods.

Visual analysis is the most common method of research using maps; it is based on the essence of maps as figurative and symbolic models that reproduce spatial forms, relationships and structure in a visual form. Already a cursory glance at a map gives rise, with experience, to a visual image of the space of the phenomena depicted, for example, a general idea of ​​the area on a topographic map. A careful review of the map allows you further (depending on its content) to see the features of the forms and the originality of the spatial pattern of phenomena (for example, round or lobed outlines of lakes, a tree-like or lattice configuration of the hydrographic network, spotty soils, etc.) and give a meaningful interpretation of these forms ; compare the values ​​of the objects shown (for example, the ratio of industrial points by the cost of gross output); establish patterns of location (for example, zonation of vegetation cover), similar nature of phenomena (for example, land use) and places of their sharp change (for example, at natural boundaries); discover spatial relationships (for example, between topography, soils and vegetation, or between natural conditions and rural settlement); understand the nature of spatial structures (for example, large cities); evaluate the features of dynamic situations (for example, weather conditions), etc.

Such an analysis is equally possible for studying planetary patterns in the distribution of land and ocean, relief, climate, soils, vegetation, wildlife, population, economy, etc. or their regional and even local characteristics. Visual analysis primarily refers to the qualitative characteristics of phenomena, but is often accompanied by an eye assessment of lengths, areas, heights, etc., as well as their ratios (in which we must not forget about the distortions introduced map projections when transferring large spaces). It is always used at the initial stage of research for a general acquaintance with the phenomena being studied and for choosing subsequent work methods.

Outwardly simple and accessible to everyone, visual analysis at the same time requires the ability to read a map, an understanding of the essence of the phenomena being analyzed and, of course, the use of appropriate maps. This is mental work, the success of which depends on the intensity and preparation of the performer.

The result of visual analysis can be a description of the phenomena being studied, which requires logic and consistency of presentation, selection and systematization of facts, their analysis, generalization and final conclusions. A pre-thought-out description scheme, as it were, forms an algorithm for visual analysis.

With the general development of the cartographic research method, visual analysis is expanding the scope of its application. It extends to new types of maps (for example, metallogenic ones, used for forecasting mineral resources) and is especially productive in complex mapping in the joint analysis of related maps, as well as in the comparative analysis of map options in the process of its automated production. Its use is very effective for the analysis of statistical maps, which translate tables of statistical data into a visual, memorable image that facilitates the analysis of phenomena and their zoning.

Cartometric studies involve measuring and calculating quantitative characteristics of phenomena using maps and assessing the accuracy of the results obtained. Definitions of coordinates, distances, lengths, heights, areas, volumes, angles and azimuths, slopes and other topographic characteristics, the theory and practical methods of these definitions have long been considered in a special section of cartography - cartometry. The range of cartometric works is unusually wide. They can be reduced to measurements of individual objects (for example, the length of a river) or be massive (include all rivers), be local in nature (for example, limited to a small area) or spread over large areas (for example, aim to determine the areas of land resources by their species for the whole country) or even have global significance.

Cartometry in traditional development limited its interests to topographic characteristics obtained from general geographic (topographic) and marine navigation maps. Meanwhile, many branches of knowledge - the sciences of the Earth and its biosphere, economic and social geography and others - now need to obtain from maps a variety of absolute and relative spatial indicators characterizing the forms of phenomena, their power, density and intensity, quantitative structure and gradients, relationships neighborhood and accessibility. The selection of indicators relates to the tasks of the above-mentioned sciences, but the determination of indicators is based on cartometric measurements on the corresponding thematic maps. Naturally, the development of fundamental provisions, rational methods and techniques for such measurements, assessment of their accuracy, justification for the choice of maps, etc. are included in the tasks of cartometry in its wide modern application.

Morphometric calculations of the shape and structure of objects - the general nature of their outlines, elongation, tortuosity, curvature, dissection, etc., as well as statistical analysis of the density, distribution and relationships of phenomena have become widespread. As a special direction in the use of the cartographic method by other sciences, “thematic morphometry is formed, the tasks of which include a quantitative study of the forms and structures of the objects depicted on them using thematic maps.” In particular, this is geomorphological morphometry, which studies the forms and structures of the relief - dimensions, features and grouping of forms, horizontal and vertical division, etc.

The intensive introduction of automated methods of measuring using maps and the use of computers for processing their results greatly increase the efficiency and accuracy of cartometric studies.

Graphic analysis consists of studying phenomena using graphical constructions performed on geographic maps. Such constructions can be profiles, sections, block diagrams and other figurative-symbolic models derived from maps, as well as various graphs-diagrams, directional roses or star diagrams, etc. They are often used for a visual representation of the placement of phenomena in planes other than horizontal, for example, in the vertical plane through profiles and sections, in a flat image of three-dimensional space through block diagrams, often combining horizontal and vertical sections, etc. Profiles are widely used to study the relief of the earth's surface, the geological structure of the earth's crust, etc. Sections showing the vertical structure of the components of the geographic shell are convenient for studying their relationships with the relief of the earth's surface, in particular with altitudinal zonation. Combining profiles allows you to move on to spatial analysis, for example, to identify alignment surfaces.

Note that profiles can be built using any maps with isolines and pseudo-isolines, for example, using density maps of various resources - natural, labor, etc. Block diagrams, which provide a perspective image of space, are convenient for conveying connections between the relief of the earth's surface, geological structures, soil cover, etc.

Automation of graphical constructions makes it possible to easily change their scales, orientation and other parameters, compare and combine different graphs, and ultimately immeasurably speeds up the work and increases the efficiency of graphical analysis.

The very essence of geographic maps as mathematically defined spatial models predetermines the effectiveness of their mathematical techniques - analysis to obtain new characteristics of the phenomena displayed on maps, to study their interrelations and dependencies, to build mathematical models and other purposes.

Mathematical-statistical analysis is very popular, involved in the study of phenomena that can be considered on maps as homogeneous sets of random variables varying in space: heights, temperatures, sown areas, yields, etc., called statistical aggregates in mathematical statistics. Among the many problems solved using maps using statistical analysis, three main ones can be distinguished:

) determination of the statistical characteristics of any homogeneous phenomenon, depending on many factors with an unknown functional connection;

) study of spatial and temporal connections between phenomena;

) assessment of the degree of influence of individual factors on the phenomenon under study and identification of leading factors.

To characterize a phenomenon using any statistical indicator (arithmetic mean, mode, median, etc.), the quantitative values ​​of the phenomenon are determined at many points on the map and the resulting data is processed, following the rules of mathematical statistics for the cells of the selected territorial grid (administrative division, natural zoning , regular network, etc.). For sampling, the most convenient are maps with isolines (or pseudo-isolines), which allow one to determine the magnitude of phenomena at any point on the map. The most justified sampling is based on a grid of evenly spaced points. Quantitative values ​​for statistical processing can also be obtained from maps with other image methods: points, areas, cartograms. For example, with the point method, the intensity of phenomena is determined selectively using a grid of control areas (often in the form of circles), counting the number of points inside each control area. Typically, the analysis is completed by constructing a cartogram or isolines (pseudo-isolines), which provide a visual representation of the spatial changes in the indicator.

When studying maps of spatial (and temporal) dependencies of phenomena - their shape and closeness - they resort to calculating correlation indicators (correlation coefficients, correlation relationships, multiple correlation indicators, etc.) and determining (evaluating) their reliability. To do this, you need to have two samples of values ​​of compared phenomena (for example, precipitation and crop yield), measured at the same points on one or two comparable maps; for multiple correlation, three or more samples are used from one or more maps. Such studies, when detailing calculations on a territorial division grid, provide material for drawing up maps of relationships (correlations) showing spatial changes in the magnitude and sign of correlation indicators; using them, it is possible to zonate the territory according to the nature of connections - close and weak, positive and negative, which is important for establishing cause-and-effect relationships between the phenomena under study. The cartographic and statistical study of relationships is now widely used not only in geographical research, but also in other branches of knowledge, in particular in geology, meteorology and medicine.

The tasks of assessing the influence of individual factors and identifying the leading factors arise when studying complex sets of phenomena with many interrelations using maps. Examples can be a set of climatic indicators, or, which is much broader, a complex of natural conditions. Mathematical statistics provides a means for this in the form of factor analysis, which makes it possible to summarize in one indicator (approximate by one factor) the influence of a complex of related phenomena and, ultimately, to generalize and evaluate the influence of many factors using a very limited number of synthetic indicators. This path of research provides an objective means of drawing up synthetic maps, for example, the comfort of natural conditions for people to live and work.

Another common method of mathematical analysis is to compile equations of surfaces from maps that approximate the phenomena under study - real (for example, the earth's topography, surfaces of buried rocks of a certain geological age, etc.) or abstract (annual precipitation layer, population density, crop yield, etc.). ), then in constructing maps of approximating surfaces using these equations and, finally, in analyzing these surfaces to interpret and explain the phenomena under study.

Approximating surfaces are convenient to use for determining areas and volumes, comparing surfaces, for example, when studying the correlation of phenomena, etc. according to maps, absolute values ​​of spatial changes, n

For mathematical analysis, provisions are also borrowed from other mathematical disciplines. In particular, methods of mathematical information theory are used to assess the spatial homogeneity (or heterogeneity) of phenomena, the spatial correspondence of various phenomena, etc., using maps.

The above separate review of the main analysis techniques used in the cartographic research method allows us to see more clearly the ways of its application. But in practice, various techniques are usually used together. For example, preliminary visual analysis is useful for choosing a rational methodology for cartometric work, the results of which can be further summarized in graphical constructions, in particular in the form of hypsographic curves, etc. Integrating various techniques not only enriches the working methodology, but also expands the capabilities of the cartographic method.

Some methods of analysis (visual, cartometric, graphic) have a long history, but mathematical methods, which often require extensive calculations, turned out to be real only after the introduction of electronic computers into the practice of the cartographic method.

2. Sharing and processing of maps in the cartographic research method

2.1 Application of the cartographic method in scientific research

With the cartographic method of research, various options for using maps are possible: direct analysis individual cards; analysis of related maps of various topics; comparison of maps from different times; comparative study of analog maps; analysis related to cartographic image transformation; decomposition of a cartographic image into components, etc.

The features and possibilities of using maps in the cartographic method largely depend on the nature of the maps themselves and the purposes of the study. Viewing maps as spatial models of geosystems clarifies the influence of map type. A sectoral map, the content of which is limited to one of the elements of the geosystem or even its individual feature, allows only the study of the spatial location of this element (or feature), if necessary, with its quantitative characteristics (magnitude, intensity, etc.). A comprehensive map that combines a number of elements of the geosystem opens the way to the study of their relationships and functioning and, therefore, greatly expands the possible limits of research. But complex mapping gains full power in a series of maps, which determines the greater efficiency of the joint analysis of related maps of geosystems.

The most accessible and widespread is direct analysis of individual maps. In the absence of special training, technical means and sufficient time, sometimes they are limited to a visual study of the map. It is equally applicable to small and large spaces and, despite its apparent simplicity, can lead an experienced researcher to many conclusions that interest him. For example, topographic maps clearly reveal the structure of the hydrographic network, types of relief, the nature of agricultural settlement - its relationship with natural conditions, etc. On a global scale, thanks to visual analysis, the phenomena of latitudinal zoning were discovered and studied, and assumptions were made about meridional and sectorial patterns found on tectonic, morphostructural, climatic, soil and geobotanical maps of the globe. The use of other methods of analysis usually expands the range of conclusions and, most importantly, strengthens their evidence. These possibilities increase even more when a number of maps are used together, as well as when their content and presentation methods are purposefully transformed.

Joint analysis of maps of different subjects is widely used to study spatial relationships and dependencies, for example, between relief, soils and vegetation. It makes it possible to establish the spatial correspondence of phenomena and thereby provides specific sciences and practice with a basis for further research to identify cause-and-effect relationships. A joint analysis of maps of obviously interrelated phenomena, such as precipitation, surface runoff and evaporation, is very productive, allowing one to come to conclusions about the water balance of the territory, its moisture, groundwater replenishment, etc. It is important that maps provide good opportunities for studying relationships that are not directly observed in nature, for example, soil and climatic conditions and population morbidity. The Atlas of the Oceans (1974-1980) provides a wealth of illustrations of the possibilities of joint analysis of maps. For example, a comparison of maps of the physical properties of the water masses of the World Ocean with biogeographic maps makes it possible to establish the dependence of the localization of plant and animal organisms on certain temperature and hydrochemical conditions. In general, complex atlases and series of maps as a multilateral display of geosystems are especially productive for studying the interrelations, dependencies and development of natural and socio-economic phenomena.

The simplest way comparison of maps - visual with orientation on a topographic basis. A more accurate result is obtained by combining maps, for example using an optical projector. To make registration easier, mating cards can be printed on clear plastics overlaid on each other. Such techniques directly reveal the complete or partial coincidence of phenomena, their inverse relationships, systematic displacements, etc. Quantitative characteristics of interrelations, in particular interdependencies that are not strictly functional, i.e. correlation can be found using methods of mathematical statistics based on samples from conjugate maps.

A joint analysis of multi-temporal maps showing changes in the spatial position and state of phenomena opens the way to studying the dynamics and development of the geosystems or their elements under study. These can be maps that reflect reality at the time of their production (for example, topographic maps based on surveys from different years), or maps compiled from sources at different times, for example, from population censuses conducted every decade. The intervals of multi-temporal maps are established in accordance with the nature of the phenomena being studied: when analyzing synoptic processes using maps, the intervals are limited to hours, and when studying secular movements of the earth’s crust they increase to tens of years or even centuries. When comparing maps from different times, the following are revealed: changes in the spatial position of phenomena, for example, movements of the coastline, areas of animal settlement, etc.; changes in the state of phenomena, for example, the growth of populated areas, upgrading of roads, etc.; replacement of some phenomena by others (plowing virgin lands, changing the species composition of forests, etc.); rhythms of seasonal and other periodic phenomena; general trends in the development of phenomena. In this case, it is possible not only to measure o, but also to determine their directions, average speeds and some other characteristics.

Comparative study of analog maps, i.e. maps depicting territories that are similar in some properties or respects, allows us to transfer, with some degree of probability, the values ​​​​obtained for accessible and well-studied spaces to less accessible and studied ones. For example, identifying similar landscapes from maps of the taiga zone of the USSR and Canada allows, as a hypothesis, the extrapolation of the patterns found for the landscapes of the USSR to similar landscapes of Canada. This technique deserves attention when predicting natural phenomena in hard-to-reach areas of the globe or when designing measures to combat unfavorable environmental conditions - permafrost, seismicity, etc.

The study of maps of analogues is now spreading beyond the globe, in particular it has gained recognition in planetology. Cartographic analysis of morphometric indicators and statistical characteristics of terrestrial and lunar ring structures, the orientation of lineament systems, the general distribution of continents, oceans, and seas reveals similarities in the structure of these two bodies. Despite all the differences in the geological development of the Earth and the Moon, the morphological similarity of their relief forms can serve as a basis for predicting the internal structure, composition and genesis of lunar formations.

Transformation of a cartographic image consists of obtaining derivative maps that are specifically designed and convenient for analysis for specific purposes. This method of using maps requires special cartographic training from performers and, in general, is associated with the processing of existing maps strictly within the framework of the research being carried out. For example, compiling derivative morphometric maps (slope steepness, depth and density of dissection) based on a hypsometric map, when they are intended for inclusion in a comprehensive scientific reference atlas and can be used to solve many problems, refers to mapping in general. But similar transformations of the hypsometric map for the purposes of a specific study belong to the cartographic method, for example, for predicting erosion processes, when the slope steepness map directly highlights areas where there is practically no washout, where plowing is dangerous, etc.

In general, the transformation of maps using the cartographic research method consists of reworking the original model in order to simplify it or, on the contrary, supplement it to introduce new indicators and characteristics into the model that better meet the interests of a particular study. The process of such transformation may be multi-stage. Thus, a map of slope steepness obtained from a map with contour lines can be subjected to new processing to obtain maps of exposure and solar illumination of slopes.

The conversion tasks are different:

simplification of maps by saving on them only those elements or indicators that are useful for a specific analysis, for example, saving on the map of slope steepness only those gradations of steepness that are interesting for agriculture (areas are identified where there is practically no runoff, where plowing is dangerous, etc. .) or in road construction, etc.; transition to generalized images reflecting the main features of objects (for example, replacing real contour lines with schematized ones drawn tangentially to the first ones on the lines of the main watersheds, as a result of which large primary relief forms appear on the map and superimposed forms of erosion and denudation dissection are eliminated);

introducing new indicators into the maps that better satisfy the interests of the research being conducted, for example, replacing absolute values ​​with relative indicators that facilitate the comparison of phenomena of different dimensions; say, the transition from an icon map of population distribution and a map with arable land areas to cartograms of population density and arable land, calculated according to a general territorial division grid;

replacing some imaging methods with others that are more convenient for comparative analysis (for example, the transition to isolines on runoff maps, which simplifies the comparison of these maps with maps of precipitation and evaporation and subsequent judgment about the water balance).

The transition from methods of continuous (continuous) mapping of space to discrete ones and vice versa is very common. Converting a continuous image into a discrete one consists of determining and recording indicators of a continuous phenomenon - quantitative and/or qualitative (for example, depths and soils of the seabed) in a certain network of points, which can be regular or selective, planned taking into account the peculiarities of the location of the phenomenon, in particular its maximums and minimums. Such a transition is necessary to obtain sample data for mathematical and statistical analysis of phenomena and, in general, for automated research methods.

The transition to a continuous image of discrete phenomena consists of using cartograms or pseudo-isolines for them, characterizing the density of the phenomena or the intensity of their quantitative characteristics (for example, reserves of natural resources, volumes or: cost of manufactured products, etc.). Pseudoisolines are preferable when the indicators change smoothly. Isolinear density maps are constructed using points - the centers of areas of constant size (for a given transformation), within which the average density or intensity of the phenomenon under study is calculated using palettes. Such areas can be cells of a continuous regular grid, cells of an overlapping regular grid, and cells of a discrete grid partially covering the map - regular, random (established according to the table random numbers) and selective, taking into account the unique location of phenomena. Note that changing the type of grid and, most importantly, the size of its cells can greatly affect the pattern of pseudoisolines. An increase in the cell area leads to a smoothing of the “relief” conveyed by isolines, i.e. to erasing contrasts in the placement of discrete phenomena. Generally speaking, the size of the cells is consistent with the size of the structures being studied and the detail of the map being converted. The increase in cells seems to be associated with the transition to the display of structural units of a higher order.

Classic isolinear maps and isolinear density maps, which reproduce the continuous distribution of quantitative characteristics of various natural and socio-economic phenomena, are known as field maps. They are convenient for automated methods of compilation and analysis and therefore are increasingly used in the cartographic research method.

A special type of transformation consists of decomposing a cartographic image into components that separately show the components (factors) of a complex phenomenon - the main ones, which have a widespread distribution (or impact), and local ones of limited effect. In this case, the overall characteristics of the phenomenon or the factors influencing it are presented in the form of the initial analyzed surface, which is decomposed during the research into two: the main, or background, displaying the main component, and the residual, transmitting minor components (local factors).

Anamorphoses do not allow one to reconstruct real values ​​of lengths, areas or other spatial characteristics from deformed images and therefore do not belong to cartographic models (from which they borrow language and the widespread use of abstractions). Real spatial outlines are often replaced with abstract ones. geometric shapes, only in the most general form reflecting the mutual placement of compared phenomena. When similar figures are placed in a row according to the ranking of quantities, topological correspondence is lost, but visual comparison of quantities is facilitated.

Note also that for simple topological models, execution by maps is not necessary. These are, for example, rectilinear diagrams of individual lines placed in subway cars, showing only the sequence of stations and transfer locations.

Previously, converting maps into anamorphoses was limited by the complexity and subjectivity of the process. Now a method has been proposed for mathematical calculation of the transformation on a computer and automated construction using a plotter. There are opinions that anamorphoses will find greater use for visually illustrating geographical relationships and will be used for forecasting purposes, for example, the development of diffusion processes.

The cartographic method finds diverse and effective application in many natural and socio-economic sciences. They turn to it in theoretical research and in the practical development of problems of rational environmental management, environmental protection, planning and management, integrated development of republics and regions, as well as many others. The specificity of the use of the method by various sciences, determined by their subject and tasks, as well as the features of combining the cartographic method with the features of the methods of specific sciences, is considered in the relevant branches of thematic cartography, for example geomorphological, geobotanical, economic, population, etc.

Sometimes visual analysis is sufficient to establish general patterns of placement, but more often it forms the introductory part of the study. Cartometric work allows you to support, clarify and detail the initial conclusions with quantitative characteristics. For example, general ideas about the distribution of agricultural land resources, obtained from the analysis of soil maps, can be specified by measuring areas. Processing maps can significantly enhance, as if expose, the patterns being studied. For example, in the second volume of the Marine Atlas (1958), the transformation of world maps of average annual temperatures in January and July into maps of their deviations from average temperatures at the corresponding latitudes more clearly reflected the influence of continents, warm and cold currents on the global temperature distribution.

One of the interesting and widely known theories of our century was the theory of central places, put forward by the German scientist W. Christaller and subsequently developed by A. Lesh. This theory, which emerged as a result of the analysis of maps, establishes order in the relative arrangement of a network of large and small settlements in the form of regular geometric networks in space. V. Christaller described the essence of the theory of central places as follows: “I connected cities of the same size on the map with straight lines. At the same time, the map was filled with triangles, often isosceles; the distances between cities of the same size were approximately equal and formed hexagons. I found that in southern Germany small towns are very often and very precisely located at a distance of 21 km from one another. It was clear that for my regional research I had created a general theoretical scheme, as they now say, an abstract economic model, although in reality it cannot be found anywhere. in its pure form, mountains, differences in soils, differences in population density, income conditions, social structure of the population, historical development and political factors introduce deviations into these patterns."

Processing of maps of forests, feeding grounds, minerals, etc. (showing phenomena in their actual discrete location) in a geographically less accurate maps“density fields” (in pseudoisolines) more clearly reveals trends in the territorial increase or decrease of resources. The clarity and visibility of maps are also favorable when addressing tasks of greater complexity - studying the structure of phenomena, i.e. the elements that form these phenomena, their location, relationships, subordination. Even the simplest hydrographic map (Fig. 10, a) shows the structure of the river network, sharp contrasts in its density, and the subordination of rivers. Topographic maps are indispensable for studying the relationship between the hydrographic network, relief and vegetation, as well as for elucidating the influence of natural conditions on rural settlement, road network layout, etc. A careful study of the topographic map is often enough to discern the dependence of the location of forests on the relief, for example, along small depressions or basins (pegs in Western Siberia), narrow strips along valleys in treeless areas (gallery forests), etc.

The study of spatial relationships, which constitutes the cardinal task of many sciences about nature and society, belongs to the most strengths cartographic method. It extends to the study of both internal and external connections, to identifying the strength of connections, their spatial variability and leading factors, which is necessary for understanding the functioning and development of geosystems.

The limits of research and conclusions about the relationships between phenomena are expanded with the joint analysis of maps of different content, especially those included in complex mapping. It is very fruitful to compare topographic maps with sectoral thematic maps: geological, soil, geobotanical, etc. For example, analysis of natural relationships using topographic and soil maps, say, in the conditions of the Altai Territory, makes it possible to establish the association of many soil contours with relief elements: solonetzes and solonchaks - to lake depressions, meadow-chernozem soils - to the bottoms of ravines and valleys, alluvial soils - to river floodplains, etc. This association is reflected in the regular pattern of soil contours: in solonetzes and solonchaks - rounded, coinciding with the boundaries of old lake basins, in meadow-chernozem soils - similar to the contours of the contours, etc. Another example is a study using maps of the dependence of the density of the hydrographic network on the geological structure of the area within one climatic zone.

It is very important that maps provide good opportunities for studying the interrelations of phenomena that are not directly observed in nature, for example, the geo- and hydrochemical conditions of territories and the morbidity of the population from a lack or excess of certain chemical elements and compounds. A joint analysis of two or more maps clearly reveals the complete or partial coincidence of phenomena, their inverse relationships, systematic biases, etc.

The relationships between the elements shown in different maps, often become clearer during graphical analysis - as a result of constructing a combined block diagram and especially a combined profile, for example, combining relief, soil cover and vegetation. For the same purpose, they sometimes resort to transforming cartographic images. For example, the transition to pseudo-isolines gives a visual representation of the degree of correspondence of “density fields” and allows us to further build, combine and compare “density profiles” of the phenomena under study (relief and forest cover, precipitation and crop yield, etc.).

Using maps to clarify and quantify spatial connections does not present any difficulties when these connections are strictly functional (for example, determining the steepness of slopes based on height differences). The task becomes more complicated when the phenomenon depends on a number of others, i.e. is determined not by one, but by several factors, or when it arises (the need for a quantitative description of the connections between two phenomena, depending on several conditions, among which there are common to both phenomena under study.

To quantitatively characterize connections that are not strictly functional, they resort to calculating correlation dependencies - correlation coefficients or correlation relationships based on samples of specific values ​​of the phenomena under study, determined at identical points on the maps of these phenomena.

2.2 Guidelines for working with school geographical atlases

When working with geographic school atlas maps, it is necessary to take into account three basic requirements: read, understand, know.

The structure of the atlas is quite simple, similar to a book or textbook. At the end of the atlas there is a table of contents of the maps placed in it, with which you should begin your acquaintance. As a rule, the list of atlas maps corresponds thematic planning subject, i.e. from complex to simple or from general to specific.

The main part of the atlas is the consolidated register of “symbols”, which is located at the very beginning of the brochure. On page 1 there is a list of geographical objects with a certain gradation, i.e. from complex to simple (see "settlements"). Studying these symbols is necessary in order to learn how to read a map correctly! Studying an atlas map begins with reading the title (upper right or left corner of the map) and studying the legend. The map legend is a list of all symbols, found on this map, with a brief explanation of them. It is placed on free spaces, card fields, inside the frame

Nature of the Earth and man. This section is cross-cutting for all years of geography education from grades 5-6 to grades 10-11 with varying degrees of detail and depth. In grades 5-6 they study physical geography parts of the world and the most important foreign countries with brief description their political system and economy.

Atlas for 6th grade "Geography. Primary Course" is structured in accordance with the topics of the textbooks. Information is provided on the development of ideas about the Earth as a planet solar system, about the structure of the Earth and its shells: lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere.

Particular attention is paid to ensuring that students master the skills of using a plan and map, methods of depicting relief, hydrographic objects and vegetation.

The first page is devoted to drawings and maps reflecting the change in people's ideas about the Earth from ancient times to the present day.

Here, color illustrations accompany cartographic images of the corresponding objects. The concept of grozontals was introduced into the circle of knowledge about topographic maps. One of the pages introduces students to the features of generalization when zooming out; the following three pages are entitled: “Image of land waters on a map.” They introduce the hypsometric coloring of the relief and the depiction of various landscapes on small-scale maps. The technique of comparing the terrain pattern with its cartographic image was used.

The second section of the atlas contains a physical map of Russia, three maps of the hemispheres (physical, political and human races) and a physical map of the oceans.

The third section is devoted to the topic "Annual movement of the Earth. Thermal zones." They occupy the last page of the atlas. It shows the position of the Earth relative to the Sun at different times of the year, the direction of the Earth's axis and the distribution of thermal zones on Earth. Background information about the greatest rivers, lakes, islands, mountain peaks and the greatest depths of the oceans is given on the third page of the cover in the form of drawings and numbers. Background information about the greatest rivers, lakes, islands, mountain peaks and the greatest depths of the oceans is given on the third page of the cover in the form of drawings and numbers.

Atlas for 7th grade "Geography of continents and oceans. Nature. Population. Economy" reflects modern ideas about the main processes and phenomena in the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere. The distribution of maps is determined by the order of study of continents and oceans provided for in the course program. Atlas comes off physical card hemispheres (1: 75,000,000), and then, on the spread, a tectonic map of the world (1: 75,000,000) is placed. For each continent, except Antarctica, maps are provided: physical, climatic, natural zones, population density, peoples, political, and in addition, complex maps on a slightly larger scale. But for Eurasia, comprehensive maps are given only for its foreign parts. Antarctica is represented by physical and climate maps. In addition to tectonics, the atlas also contains the following world maps: geographical zones and natural zones, soil, distribution of animals. On comprehensive maps placed drawings of forests, picturesque

the relief is depicted in an artistic way, and the distribution of farm animals and plants using the method of icon areas; in addition, the place of mining, power plants, the largest industrial and cultural centers and roads are shown. The last page of the atlas contains background information. These maps are original in design and are close in content to general geographical maps.

Atlas for 8th grade "Geography of Russia". Nature and Man" includes 69 maps and consists of 10 sections: Introductory; "Relief and subsoil"; "Climate"; "Surface waters and seas"; "Soils"; "Natural territorial complexes"; "Geographical areas"; "Nature and people." Maps of time zones in Russia and the world, difficult for students to understand, are accompanied by explanatory texts.

The territory of Russia as a whole is twelve thematic maps: political-administrative and physical, accompanied by corresponding legends. The soil map contains color sections of the main soils.

In the section "Relief and Subsoil" the original drawing of the evolution of life on Earth attracts attention. In the “Climate” section there is a map “Climate-Forming Factors”, which helps to understand the patterns of formation of climatic zones in Russia. The section "Surface Waters and Seas", continuing the theme "Oceans" of the 7th grade atlas, includes a whole series of maps of temperature and ice regimes, salinity of the seas surrounding the territory of Russia.

In the “Vegetation and Fauna” section, new subjects include: “Economic groups of forests”, “Rare and endangered species of plants and animals”, “Freshwater fish”, “Swamps”. The map "Natural zones and mountain areas of altitudinal zonation" is accompanied by landscape profiles of mountain systems.

In the “Nature and People” section, maps “Ecological state of the natural environment”, “Natural living conditions of the population”, “Nature conservation”, “Specially protected natural areas” are highlighted.

The atlas for 9th grade shows the formation of territorial economic systems. All cards are political. Their contents are dedicated to

mainly economic and geographical topics, maps of industries and agriculture, transport and cargo flows, general economics, land, fur resources, etc.

A system of indicators corresponding to a market economy was used, reflecting the level of development of the country and its individual regions. Particularly highlighted are problematic topics, in particular “Standard of Living of the Population.”

Maps of economic sectors include information on production volumes and are equipped with a whole series of diagrams and graphs (dynamic and structural) characterizing Russia's place in terms of raw material reserves and individual types of production in the context of the countries of the world.

Conclusion

The cartographic research method has all the properties of the scientific method. It has a clearly defined range of tasks, a system of specific and interrelated techniques for analyzing and transforming cartographic images. The period of rapid development and improvement of the method began relatively recently, but it has already repeatedly proven its reliability and effectiveness. The method is being developed in several directions. The main prospects are associated with the progress of comprehensive thematic mapping, with the creation of maps and atlases of a new type, including those specifically designed for conducting scientific research on them.

In the educational process, it serves to form and concretize geographical concepts, develops students’ creative imagination, memory, logical thinking, the ability to analyze, compare, juxtapose, establish connections and form geographical thinking.

Literature

1. Salishchev K.A. Cartology: Textbook - 3rd ed. - M.: Moscow State University Publishing House, 1990

Berlyant A.M. Cartography: Textbook for universities. - M.: Aspect Press, 2002.

Berlyant A.M. Map is the second language of geography: (Essays on cartography). Book for the teacher. - M.: Education, 1985

Klitsunova N.K. Methods of geographical research: a manual for students special 1-31 02 01 "Geography (in areas)". At 2 p.m. Part 1. - Minsk: BSU, 2008

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