Tartary or Great Tartary (Latin Tataria, Tataria Magna; English Tartary, Great Tartary, sometimes Grand Tartary; French Tartarie) is a term used in Western European literature during the Middle Ages and up to the 18th century to designate the Great Steppe - vast territories between Central Asia, the Caspian Sea, the Ural Mountains and Pacific Ocean. The name Tartary has nothing to do with the name of the Turkic tribes. When foreigners asked the inhabitants of this country about who they were, the answer was: “We are the children of Tarkh and Tara” - brother and sister, who, according to the ideas of the ancient Slavs, were the guardians of the Russian land. Great Tartary is the largest country in the world, as it is described in the first edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica in 1771.

Map of 1754 "I-e Carte de l"Asie"

On the map, the border of Tartary with China runs along the Great Chinese wall. Moreover, the southern part of the wall is higher than the northern one, and the loopholes also face south, so it becomes clear who defended themselves from whom with this wall.

Map XVIII centuries -
"L"Asie dresse sur les observations de l"Academie Royale des Sciences et quelques
autres, et sur les memoires les plus recens. Amsterdam. Chez R. & J. Ottens"

West of the Volga we see “European Muscovy” - Moscovie Europeane:

Map made in Paris in 1670.

Fragment of a map of North America from the Encyclopædia Britannica of 1771.


A huge white patch is visible covering most of the North American continent.

Map of Europe from the 18th century Encyclopaedia Britannica.
>

Map of Asia from the 18th century Encyclopædia Britannica.

Russian map of Asia 1737

Hessel Geretis 1613-1614

Tartaria - Edition by Guillaume de Lisle 1707-1709.

General map of Siberia and Great Tartary 1670-1680

Russia and Scandinavia Nicholas Whisker 1660

Map by V. Kiprianov “Image of the Earth’s Globe”, 1707 Western Hemisphere.

Map by V. Kiprianov “Image of the Earth’s Globe”, 1707. Eastern Hemisphere.

A huge “white spot” in place of Siberia and the Far East.
At the bottom of the Siberian white spot there is only the inscription in large letters: Tartary.

Map by V. Kiprianov “Image of the Earth’s Globe”, 1707 fragment.


European part of Russia.

Map by V. Kiprianov “Image of the Earth’s Globe”, 1707 fragment.

A huge “white spot” in place of North and Northwestern America.

Map of Russia and Great Tartary. 1786


The French inscription on top of the card reads: Carte de l "Empire de Russie & de la Grande Tartarie dressee avec soin par F.L. Gussefeld & publee par les Herit de Homann, l"an 1786.

I arrange the cards in chronological order, from simple to complex, as it seems to me. Some doubtful ones were excluded (Waldseemüller, for example). However, there are plenty of doubtful ones here too, especially in the first half of the century. We must also remember that the accuracy of maps depends on many factors, in particular, on the scale and purpose. So, portolans will do anything more precisely maps, compiled so that some baron would look at them on winter evenings by the fireplace.)

1511. Bernard Silvanus. The coast of North America is shown

1535 (first publication - 1522). Lorenz Friez (Or Friez?). Greenland appears as a peninsula of Eurasia.

1528 Benedetto Bordone. South America is greatly shortened (where did Magellan swim there?). You might think that there is no Greenland, but most likely it is a peninsula in northern Scandinavia.

1529. Diego Ribero, portolan. The eastern coast of South America is shown quite accurately. Iceland seems to be there. What’s wrong with Greenland is unclear.

1531. Orontius Phineus. South America is shown quite accurately, there are Greenland and Iceland, North America is connected to Eurasia.

1537 Munster. South America - again very inaccurate, there is no Greenland, but there is Japan - Zipangri

1540. Munster

1543. Guillaume Brouscon, portolan. No Greenland and Japan. The west coast of South America is not shown accurately.

1548. Gastaldi. World map from Ptolemy's Geography.

1553. Peter Apian. Asia is connected to Greenland, as for Japan - it is not clear whether it exists or not. At the same time, South America is quite accurate.

1561. Russelli. North America connects to Greenland and Asia.

1565. (Lafrery?). Eurasia connects with North America. Greenladia is an island north of Scandinavia. It looks like they struggled for a long time, not knowing where to put it.

1570. Forlani-Decetti. In fact, a variant of the previous one.

1578. Gerard de Jode. Note that Ortelius’s atlas had been published for 8 years by that time. It is characteristic that on the globe in the lower right corner there are different outlines of the continents.

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January 20, 2017 -
December 7, 2016 -

Today we will talk about ancient Russian maps. The post will be short. Simply because, in general, they simply don’t exist. I have seen thousands, if not tens of thousands, of foreign maps from this period. The situation with our cards is even stranger.
The first Russian atlas that is publicly available is the Kirilov Atlas, created between 1724 and 1737. (Download link). The atlas is not complete, unfortunately, it does not contain maps of all regions and localities of our country. But this is essentially the beginning of Russian cartography, no matter how strange it may sound.
There is indeed the so-called Drawing Book of Siberia (1699-1701), Remezov. (Download link) And also “Chorographic Book of Siberia” (1697-1711). But their dating and correspondence to reality raise a lot of questions for me personally. As an example, I give a map of Perm the Great from the Drawing Book. All pictures are clickable to large sizes.

These are the cards children draw in 1st grade. North is on the right here (but this is very conditional). In general, in his works, Remezov clearly did not bother with the orientation of his “maps” to the cardinal points. From map to map they constantly jump on the sides of the sheet. Concepts such as scale and proportion are completely absent from the word. At the same time, maps were already being created in the West that were almost close in accuracy to modern ones.
User palexy one excerpt:
I have a map by D.G. Messeshmidt from 1721 (a section of the Ob tributaries of the Tom and Ini) which almost completely copies the map Remezova. The date of Messerschmidt’s expedition is indisputable since there are tons of documents on it, but here is an excerpt from the diary given by Nevlyanskaya: “Captain Tabbert went today with cornet Iorist to an artist named Remezov, from whom he saw a map of the Tomsk district drawn in oil paints; he looked through it quickly, but did not find anything in it that was depicted correctly" (Novlyanskaya M. G. Philipp Johann Stralenberg. M.; Leningrad, 1966. P. 36.) .

Well, finally, on this map there are no cities and towns I have discovered. Hundreds of foreign maps have them, but Remezov does not. Peter the Great in 1708. They are mentioned in. But in fairness, I must say that it was on this map that I found the Molozhek River.

There is such a Drawing of the Siberian land, compiled in 1667 under the leadership of the Tobolsk governor, steward Peter Ivanovich Godunov. From the official drawing book of S. U. Remezov (Manuscript Department of the State Public Library named after M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, Hermitage Collection, No. 237, l 31 spread).

North is down here. As for Remezov’s drawing book, of course they got excited. As I already wrote, there was no orientation to the cardinal directions at all.
And another version of the same card:

There is a more (I wanted to write a perfect, but this is not so) detailed version of this map on the network. Also attributed to Remezov. If you look from the point of view of the absence of any scales and proportions, then yes, Remezov agrees. But the clear presence of cardinal directions suggests the opposite.

While looking for materials on the city of Perm the Great, I came across a small fragment of a map from the server of the Ural State University , which is designated as - Map of Perm the Great. XVI century Reproduction.

Again, the North is down here. And there is the city of Perm. There it is, under the word "Cheremisy". Unfortunately, it was not possible to get the entire map. And I still haven’t found out where they dug it up from there.
I saw several other similar maps on the Internet, but they were too cloudy and terribly primitive. That's why I didn't even bother saving them.
Now comes the fun part.

Here it is in full size:

Do you feel the difference? Heaven and earth with drawings by Remezov. Even the parallels are correct. Unfortunately, the resolution of the map is not very high and many small inscriptions are not visible at all. But you can find out something.
Belgorod Horde on the territory of modern Odessa region of Ukraine:

Little Tartaria (that is, TaTtaria) in the Black Sea steppes.

And to the right of it, separated by a border, is an area called the Yurts of the Don Cossacks. Moreover, it stretches right up to the Volga, most likely.

By the way, I’ll give you part of one map of 1614 from my post: .

Those. a hundred years earlier, these two areas were a single state. And precisely from his “Tatar yoke”.
By the way, the Tatars were previously called Cossacks. I have a question about this. There at the end it is directly written that the Little Russian Cossacks live on the lands where the Tatar Cossacks used to live. Or maybe they were their descendants. Who knows.

That's all.

And finally, the Book: Ancient Russian hydrography: Containing a description of the Moscow state of rivers, channels, lakes, deposits, and what cities and tracts there are along them and at what distance thereof. - St. Petersburg: Published by Nikolai Novikov: [Type. Academician Sciences], 1773 . Now it is better known as the “Book of the Big Drawing.” This is the same map of the 16th, early 17th centuries, only handwritten. In fact, it is possible that Remezov drew his drawings precisely from such texts.
By the way, there is an interesting passage in the preface:

This is exactly the same situation with our cards. They simply weren't there. More precisely, they probably all were. But either they were destroyed, or they lie deep in the archives. Simply because the history of Russia is completely different there. Where were the cities that I rediscovered? By the way, the last one, but this did not stop modern historians from stubbornly insisting that he did not exist.

Yesterday I was told that the archives of the Library of the Russian Academy of Sciences contain as many as 10,000 ancient maps. I don’t yet know exactly what kind of maps these are, ours or foreign ones and from what centuries, but I really hope that there will also be Russian ancient maps from the 16th-17th and early 18th centuries. My friends are now trying to scan it all and post it online. God grant that they succeed. And then we will learn a little more truth about the history of that time.

Addition :

Today we will look at two Russian maps of the early 18th century from the archives of the Russian National Library. Although the word “we’ll see” here is very conditional. I have a very strong desire to put the entire leadership of this library against the wall and shoot them with a heavy machine gun. They are saboteurs, not scientists.

Let's see firstMap of the hemispheres in 1713, published in the Civil Printing House of V.O. Kipriyanova. The map is large, but the resolution of the image, on the contrary, is small. Therefore, it is fashionable to look only at very large recordings. Click to open in higher resolution. But you can get something out of it. Pay attention to Antarctica. She's gone. I once specifically looked at similar atlases of Western cartographers. There was no Antarctica there either until the beginning of the 19th century, when our sailors discovered it. Therefore, if you see an old map where Antarctica is present, you should know that it was made in the second half of the 19th century. Or later.
I would like to draw your attention to high degree the skills of the Russian cartographers of that time. . And I repeat my thought - these are not maps, but children’s drawings at the elementary school level.

And another map by the same author: A geographical globe, or earth-descriptive one, shows the four parts of the earth, Africa, Asia, America, and Europe, which are inhabited, and which embrace us from everywhere. By command in the civil printing house of the Summer of the Lord: 1707. In the reigning City of Moscow, by the Care of Vasily Kiprianov. Under the supervision of His Excellency Mr. General Lieutenant Jacob Villimovich Bruce.
It's here at this link more or less possible to consider. But after that I want to strangle the local programmers with my bare hands, for a long time. It is impossible to drag the entire map from there, so I took several screenshots from there. And several interesting discoveries await us on them. Namely the word “Sarmat” right under the letter M of the word Moscow. And visible aboveOcean Sarmatian.

Here is another excerpt: The Scythian Ocean was added to the Sarmatian Ocean. To the right of the name "M. Moskovskoe". I don’t understand what this means. The word TARTARIA is written in capital letters. Through the "r". Just above the beginning of this word the names - Scythia - are visible. But above the letter “I” in the word “Siberia” you can see the river “Tatar”. Above the word “MOSCOW” it also seems to be written - Sarmatia. Again, why is it not written Russia or Rus'? But what the word “Asinsky” means is not clear.

Oh, it was not in vain that Lomonosov wrote in his book: . Brief Russian chronicler with genealogy, St. Petersburg: Under Imp. Academician Sciences, 1760.

And finally, a Description of Europe. It really looks very bad. Instead of France it says Gaul. There is also some kind of Dacia. Poland is written without a soft sign. At the very end it seems to be written to Hellas. For information . But Russia is here. And it, as I understand it, is in European Moscow and Tartaria, as well as Turkey. Or are these separate states on the territory of the continent?

There is a very interesting line in the description:
Drawings: coat of arms above the hemispheres Russian Empire against the background of an ermine mantle supported by archangels with swords in their hands; framed by the mantle are figures of Mars, Apollo, banners and other military paraphernalia;
And here they are. And this is far from an isolated case. By name . And all this fits very well into mine , which we simply called the Golden Woman.

If anyone can here's where to pull out the whole map in more or less good resolution, I will be very grateful.

Addition: The world is not without kind people and thanks to the respected prostoyoleg You and I can see the entire map. True, in the same not very high resolution.

Addition.

And these are separate files.

The midnight ocean is cool.

Strange, yes, the Adriatic Sea or the Western Ocean?

And here is the Devkali Ocean. In general, previously, it seems to me that slightly other types of water areas were called sea and ocean.

Addition .

The Russian National Library, St. Petersburg, is slowly digitizing its collections. And he even posts them for everyone to see.
Picart P. Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania drawing / By order of his most powerful royal majesty, Peter Picart was roaming in Moscow; [Cartouche engraved. A. Schonebeck]. - Moscow: Armory Chamber, . But the map itself was definitely drawn much earlier. Kyiv on it is still part of Lithuania, while according to official history it became part of the Moscow state in 1667. Moreover, I have a strong feeling that it was only engraved in Moscow and created in that same Principality of Lithuania, in the mid-17th century.

Click to open in high resolution.

There are a lot of unknown toponyms. Crimea is written here as TaTtaria. Just like on the Russian map of the late 17th century from my main post. And only in the 18th century did Tartaria begin to be called Tataria. Pay attention to Crimea, except for Kafa and Perekop, not a single familiar name. Baltic The sea was formerly called the Eastern Lake.

Notice how Konigsberg is called on this map. I went to Wiki and found amazing text there:
Under the name Korolevets (Korolevets) or Korolevits, the castle and the area around it have been mentioned for a long time, starting from the 13th century, in various Russian sources: chronicles, books, atlases. In Russia, this name was widely used before Peter I and, occasionally, in a later period, until the beginning of the 20th century, including in fiction, for example, in the texts of M. Saltykov-Shchedrin. However, after Peter I and before the renaming in 1946, Russians more often used the German version.
Heh, it was not in vain that I asserted in my investigation that the Slavs lived there.

In general, if you go and compare the map with the official history, the list of inconsistencies will be more than a dozen pages long. Well, this is a trivial matter for our history.

Addition :

It turns out there was such a city as Byzantium. Here's his plan

Plan of Constantinople or the Tsar City, which was previously named Byzantium in ancient times, but Vigos was conquered by Muhammad the second in the year of the Lord 1453 of the month of May on the 29th day] / [Drawn by Prince Dimitri Cantemir]; Grydor. Alexy Zubov in St. Petersburg. - St. Petersburg: [Petersburg Printing House], .

IN . The French were not lazy and sorted them all. There are even plans for Koenigsberg. And of Ukraine, of course. And there are several dozen maps various areas Russia, drawn, judging by the titles, in 1724-1729 by our cartographers. True in English. Well, that’s okay. The main thing here is that until now some of the most early cards areas were considered maps of Kirilov, 1722-1731 . They are there, by the way, too, partly. There is. And here is completely new, never seen by anyone, cartographic material. And there I found the city of Staraya Rezan.

North is on the left here. This, by the way, is one of the signs, as I understand it, of local maps of the 17th century. Already in the 18th century, it became a rule to orient maps of specific areas to the north. And before that, cartographers drew them according to their convenience. The most clear example These are Remizov's cards. There, the north “walks” in a circle simply chaotically. It will break your mind until you understand what and how is drawn on a specific map. In general, Russian maps of the 17th century are, for the most part, oriented to the south. Like Remezov’s map of Siberia and the Far East. At least this map is attributed to him.
As for Europe, I’ll give an example from my old posts - . The north there is also not static. years, everything settled down and accepted modern frameworks.
I have a very reasonable suspicion that all the maps that we now know were made no earlier than the end of the 17th century. True, according to the ancient originals, which by that time had simply dilapidated and become unusable. Well, some of them, of course, were simply forged in the 18th century. 19th centuries. This can be seen from the correct proportions and contours of the terrain. When you look at Russian maps, pay attention to two things. The Caspian Sea should be round and not elongated. And near Crimea, the Kerch region should be, as it were, cut off and not stretched to the left, as it is now.

This means we see the cities of Kolomna and Kashira. Further along the Oka River is the city of Pereslavl-RIzanskaya And behind him is Old Rezan. Please note that the old name contains the letter "e". Somewhere before the beginning of the 18th century, we almost did not have the letter “I”. Therefore, there was, among other things, Yeroslavl.
The city of Staraya Rezan has a complicated history. First it was destroyed at the end of the 16th century by the Tatars, then it existed, along with the new Rezan, as a small village. But already at the beginning of the 18th century it grew into a city. Pay attention to the city icon and the footnote to the map. In this form it existed somewhere until the mid-18th century and then disappeared again. The authorities announced that it was destroyed by Batu in the 13th century. In this format of the fort, it still exists today as an archaeological monument. But there you can still see pieces of 18th century temples.
And in 1781, Catherine the Second renamed Pereslav-Ryazanskaya into simply Ryazan. Which still exists today. Thanks to her for that. Otherwise, the toponym could go down in history almost without a trace, like the city of Bulgar and Bulgaria. And then Batu, he’s like Shurik, you can blame everything on him.

General history. History of modern times. 7th grade Burin Sergey Nikolaevich

§ 19. Political map Europe in the 18th century

New features in the foreign policy of European countries

In Europe, the 17th century was rich in turbulent events: the English Revolution, the Thirty Years' War, military rivalry between England and the Netherlands, France and Spain... To a certain extent, all this contributed to the growing desire of the leading powers of Europe to preserve stability on the continent and in the world at large. At the same time, the most powerful states naturally felt a desire to indicate their advantage not only in the sphere of economics and trade, but also in new colonial conquests, expansion of their zones of influence, etc. Moreover, unlike the Middle Ages, when wars began and seizures were made by the right of the strong, in modern times the concepts and practice of international law began to strengthen. Even strong powers could no longer base their actions on the “principle” of the Wolf from I. A. Krylov’s fable: “It’s your fault that I want to eat.” Whatever the true goals of the state in wars, conquests, etc., it needed to create a legal basis for its actions.

That is why in the 18th century. so-called dynastic wars prevailed, which were formally fought for the establishment of the next “legitimate” dynasty or “legitimate” contender on the throne of a particular country. With a strong desire, it was not so difficult to find a reason to justify the right to the throne. Suffice it to recall, for example, the unlucky Duke of Monmouth, and even more so William III of Orange. And yet, the desire of the conflicting parties to give their actions a semblance of legality was a very significant phenomenon. In relations between European states, principles were established that subsequently led to the triumph of international law.

Spanish ambassadors in Versailles invite the grandson of Louis XIV - Philip of Anjou to the Spanish throne

In the 18th century the old Franco-Spanish and Franco-Dutch rivalries faded into the background. It was replaced by a long struggle between England and France, under the sign of which the entire period of the 18th - early 19th centuries passed. And the enmity arose at the end of the 17th century, when England joined the union of states that fought against France. In the 18th century Anglo-French rivalry for dominance in Europe largely determined the development of all international relations.

What do you think was the basis of what began at the end of the 17th century? Anglo-French rivalry (besides specific wars and other conflicts)?

The War of the Spanish Succession and its results

Although the Spanish Habsburgs in the 16th–17th centuries. lost the northern provinces of the Netherlands and ceded a number of territories to France, their possessions by the beginning of the 18th century. were still huge. In addition to the southern Netherlands and Italian lands, Spain still owned extensive colonies in the Americas.

In 1700, Charles II, the last of the Spanish Habsburgs, died. He had no children, but a month before his death, the king, under pressure from the French, bequeathed his throne to the grandson and heir of Louis XIV, Philip of Anjou: he was also the grandson of the Spanish princess. Therefore, in the future there could be a unification of the thrones of Spain and France. Such an outcome could only suit the French.

In this situation, the desire to establish a balance of power immediately worked. The Austrian Habsburgs also nominated their own contender for the empty throne - the grandson of the previous Spanish king. But Louis XIV had already sent his own grandson to Spain, declaring: “There are no more Pyrenees!” And of course, it would not be difficult for France to subjugate a weakened Spain.

Battle of the War of the Spanish Succession

But together with Austria, England, the Netherlands, Denmark, Portugal and a number of German states opposed the French. The War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714) began, engulfing large parts of continental Europe. Almost simultaneously with it, another war was going on in eastern Europe, the Northern War (1700–1721). In it, Russia, in alliance with Denmark and the Elector of Saxony (who was also the king of Poland), fought against Sweden.

Thus, these two wars actually became the second all-European war (after the Thirty Years). In the Northern War, Russia won a landslide victory, thereby significantly strengthening its position in Europe. And in the War of the Spanish Succession, the arrogant French king barely managed to avoid defeat. As a result, Philip of Anjou was allowed to remain on the Spanish throne, but only on the condition that he renounce his rights to the French throne.

Signing of the Peace of Utrecht, which ended the War of the Spanish Succession

Thus, the long-standing dream of all the kings of the Bourbon dynasty to unite France and Spain collapsed. Spain itself suffered great losses in the war. Almost all the Spanish possessions in Italy, as well as the Southern Netherlands, went to the Austrian Habsburgs. England inherited the Spanish fortress of Gibraltar, which “blocked” the route from the Mediterranean Sea to the Atlantic. The British also received a monopoly right to trade in black slaves exported from Africa to the Spanish and other colonies in America. Previously, this right belonged to the Spaniards themselves. As a result, England further strengthened its position as “mistress of the seas.” Spain was finally pushed to the margins of Europe, “driven beyond the Pyrenees,” as the French king Henry IV once dreamed.

If in the conditions of the beginning of the 18th century. the thrones of Spain and France were united, which of the two countries would benefit more from this? Justify your answer.

New dynastic wars

In 1733–1735 Another dynastic war broke out - for the Polish inheritance. In it, Austria and Russia fought with France and Spain. Each side supported its own contender for the Polish throne. Formally, victory remained with the Austro-Russian group. But at the same time, Austria had to abandon Lorraine and southern Italy, which were occupied by its rivals during the war. These lands went to the French and Spanish Bourbons, respectively.

And soon a new, much larger war broke out. This time the Austrian inheritance was divided. After the death of Archduke of Austria and Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI, the throne passed to his daughter Maria Theresa. But her rights were immediately challenged by the Elector of Bavaria. He was supported by France and Spain, who had already fought against the Austrian Habsburgs more than once, as well as Saxony. Prussia, Austria’s main rival in the struggle for supremacy in Germany, also intervened in the dispute. Having just become king of Prussia, 28-year-old Frederick II had already gained fame for his belligerence. Europe also knew him as a subtle diplomat and an excellent commander. But the diplomacy and policies of the King of Prussia were aggressive, and at times simply arrogant.

Maria Theresa

Breaking his promise to recognize all the rights of Maria Theresa, Frederick II treacherously captured the rich Austrian province of Silesia. The War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748) intensified the Austro-Prussian rivalry. As a result of the war, the Austrian throne remained with Maria Theresa, but Silesia remained with Prussia. This infuriated the Archduchess. She declared that she would return Silesia, “even if it means giving up her last skirt.”

And soon the energetic Maria Theresa managed to create an anti-Prussian coalition, which included France and Russia. And England, which supported Maria Theresa in the previous war, unexpectedly took the side of Prussia. The fact is that at that time the British were worried not so much about European affairs as about the successes of France in the struggle for colonies (India, Canada, etc.). Therefore, the main focus of England’s wars at that time was not for anyone, but against France. And as soon as France changed from being an opponent of Austria to becoming its ally, the British did the same thing, only in reverse order.

The Seven Years' War and the Strengthening of Russia

When these two hostile factions took shape, the Seven Years' War (1756–1763) began, which became the third pan-European war. And in a sense, it can be called a prototype of the world wars of the 20th century: the echoes of this war even reached North America and Asia (India). The Seven Years' War fundamentally changed the balance of power in Europe. The alliance of not only England and Prussia, but also Austria and France - sworn enemies in a number of previous wars - turned out to be unexpected. Maria Theresa even promised to give “her” Netherlands to the French if only they would help her return Silesia.

Frederick II

One of the main surprises of the war was the sharply increased military power of Russia. Russian troops inflicted several heavy defeats on the “invincible” Prussian army, on the maintenance of which Frederick II spent fabulous amounts of money. In 1760, Russian troops even briefly entered Berlin, the capital of Prussia. But the very next year, the Holstein Duke Karl Peter Ullrich, grandson of Peter I, ascended the Russian throne under the name of Peter III. He made peace with Prussia, but it was already so weakened that it soon (in 1762) left war.

As a result of the Seven Years' War, European borders remained unchanged. However, England failed to obtain large French possessions in India and simply gigantic ones in North America - Canada and Louisiana. This brought a decisive turning point in the rivalry between England and France. England became the leading trading and colonial power in the world. France, by the end of the era of Louis XV (ruled 1715–1774), was noticeably weakened not only from wars. The country's economy was struggling to cope with ever-increasing maintenance costs. royal court and the highest aristocracy.

Without giving Russia any specific acquisitions, the Seven Years' War significantly strengthened its authority in Europe. From now on, the influence of the Russian Empire on international affairs began to constantly grow stronger. Two Russian-Turkish wars soon followed (1768–1774 and 1787–1791), as a result of which Russia received important lands in the Northern Black Sea region and the Caucasus. This gave the empire the opportunity to create a powerful fleet on the Black Sea and practically decided in its favor the long-standing rivalry with Turkey.

What, in your opinion, were the main results of the Seven Years' War for the further history of Europe?

Partitions of Poland

Against the backdrop of the establishment of a bourgeois way of life in a number of European countries, Poland’s lag became increasingly noticeable. By the middle of the 18th century. this state found itself in a secondary position. Meanwhile, in addition to Polish, it also included Lithuanian, Ukrainian and Belarusian lands. The Polish and, to a lesser extent, the Lithuanian gentry (i.e., the nobility) were in a privileged position, and the peasants bore numerous duties. It was the most difficult for the Orthodox Ukrainian and Belarusian peasants: they experienced oppression both from the gentry and from the Catholic Church, which dominated in Poland.

The latter became the reason for interference in Polish affairs by the strengthened eastern neighbor - Russia. Back in 1767, she demanded that Orthodox Christians in Poland be given equal rights with Catholics. The Polish authorities agreed, but part of the gentry opposed this. As a result, in 1772 the Russian army entered Poland, easily breaking the resistance of the Polish troops. Empress Catherine II wanted to occupy all of Poland, but Russia did not have the strength for this at that moment: the main troops and fleet were fighting another war with Turkey.

Meanwhile, Poland's western neighbors, Prussia and Austria, also had their own plans for it. Frederick II insisted on allocating “shares” from weakened Poland for Prussia and Austria, and not just for Russia alone. Later, two more divisions of Poland took place (in 1793 and 1795), and for many years the country ceased to exist as an independent state. The monarchs of Russia, Prussia and Austria simply divided its territory among themselves. Russia got mainly Ukrainian, Belarusian and Lithuanian lands, and Prussia and Austria got Polish ones.

Europe in the second half of the 18th century.

Find the partitions of Poland on the map. Which country(ies) benefited most from the results of these sections? Explain your answer.

Let's sum it up

During the wars of the 18th century. the rivalry between England and France for trade, economic and military primacy in Europe and in the world as a whole was decided in favor of the British. The international position of Prussia, Austria and especially Russia has noticeably strengthened, significantly expanding its borders in the west and strengthening its army and navy.

Stability – constancy, stability, ability to successfully withstand various surprises. 1700 -1721 - Northern War.

1701 – 1714 - War of the Spanish Succession.

1756 -1763 - Seven Years' War.

1772 , 1793 And 1795 - three partitions of Poland.

“If you like someone’s province, then take it for yourself. There will always be a sufficient number of historians and lawyers who will undertake to prove that you had historical rights to it.”

(This was what King Frederick II of Prussia advised other monarchs in the mid-18th century)

1. Why exactly in modern times (and not earlier or later) did the norms of international law begin to strengthen in relations between states? What was the reason for this process and when do you think it began (approximately)?

2*. What prevented England and France (for example, during the wars for the Polish and then the Austrian succession) from ending up in the same group? Wasn't it more profitable to have a strong state as an ally than as an enemy?

3. Why did Russia’s successes in the Seven Years’ War come as a complete surprise to the other leading powers of Europe? Why didn’t they see Russia as a serious rival (or partner) before?

4. How did it happen that the European powers, which had recently fought for one throne or another, did not support Poland during the period of its partitions? Why was Poland left to the mercy of fate?

1. Based on the materials in the textbook, fill out the table “Wars of the 18th century.”

2. Polish thinker S. Konarski in the early 1760s. wrote:

“We complain about unfair and often shamelessly corrupt courts, about unpunished perjuries that have almost become a habit, about unbearable insults from the more noble and powerful, about the fact that there are many tyrants everywhere and tyranny over the weaker... Every citizen seems to care about nothing he doesn’t think of a friend, as long as he feels good, and let the rest perish... The state treasury is poorer and worse organized than in many foreign towns. Trade in the country fell completely... The serfs became extremely impoverished. Cities and towns have been devastated... There is boundless despair throughout the whole country because it will never be better and cannot be..."

Rate the words given. To what extent did the situation that Konarski writes about influence the future fate of Poland?

3. Divide into three groups, each of which will defend the special importance of wars for Europe: for the Spanish inheritance; for the Polish inheritance; for the Austrian inheritance. Give reasons for your position. Discuss your findings.

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