It is saved on the thematic map for orientation. Orientation using a map and compass
The importance of the map as a means of orientation has especially increased in modern combat, when units quickly move over long distances day and night, often acting independently in solving many combat missions.
Equipping combat and special vehicles with ground navigation equipment does not detract from the value of the map. This equipment is used in conjunction with a topographic map, and does not replace it.
When navigating the terrain, unit commanders usually use topographic maps at scales of 1:50,000 and 1:100,000.
Orientation on the map includes map orientation, comparing it with the terrain and determining your location (standing point).
5.1. Map orientation
Orienting a map means positioning it horizontally so that the north (top) side of the map frame faces north. With this position of the map, the location of local objects and landforms on the ground will correspond to the location of symbols on the map.
Orientation of the map can be done according to a linear landmark or direction to a landmark, when your location (standing point) is known in advance on the map. If the standing point is unknown, the map is oriented along the sides of the horizon.
By linear reference the map can be oriented roughly or precisely.
For approximate orientation, just turn map like this, so that the direction mentally drawn from the standing point along the conventional sign of a linear landmark on the map, for example a road, coincides with the direction of this landmark on the ground. Approximate map orientation is most often performed on the march when comparing the map with the terrain in motion and monitoring the passage of pre-designated or selected landmarks - intersections and forks in roads, bridges, settlements and other characteristic objects. In this case, their location on the map is also determined approximately, by eye. To accurately orient the map, use a ruler or pencil. By attaching a ruler to a conventional sign of a linear landmark, for example a road (Fig. 63), its direction is aligned with the direction of this landmark on the ground. Then they check whether all local objects and landforms located on the ground to the right and left of the road have the same location on the map. If this condition is met, the map is oriented correctly.
Toward a landmark The map is oriented in the same way as according to a linear landmark. The only difference is that instead of a linear landmark, the direction from the standing point to some distant local object is used ( separate tree, bridge, repeater, i.e. a point landmark), reliably identified on the ground and on the map.
When roughly orienting a map using this method, it is turned in a horizontal position so that the direction mentally drawn on the map from the standing point to the symbol of a local object approximately coincides with this direction on the ground.
Precise orientation of the map in the direction of a distant local object (landmark) is performed using a sight ruler or pencil (Fig. 64). The ruler is applied on the map with its side edge to the standing point (a separate stone) and the symbol of the object in the direction of which the map is oriented (a railway bridge). Then turn the map horizontally so that the object on the ground is on the line of sight. In this position the map will be oriented accurately.
By compass The map is oriented when one’s location on it is not determined or landmarks are not visible from the standing point.
When roughly orienting a map, first determine the direction to the north using a compass, then turn the map so that the top side of the frame faces north.
When accurately orienting a map using a compass, first the compass reference pointer is set against a scale division equal to the direction correction if the compass is installed on a vertical line of the kilometer grid, or the magnetic declination value if the compass is installed on the western or eastern side of the map frame (Fig. 65). If the direction correction (magnetic declination) is positive (eastern), the reference pointer is set to the right of the zero scale division, and if it is negative (western), it is set to the left.
Then the compass is installed on the map so that the zero diameter of its dial (or the ruler of the AK compass) coincides with one of the vertical lines of the coordinate grid or with one of the sides of the map frame (western or eastern), and the zero point is directed to the north side of the frame cards. Without changing the position of the compass, the map is turned horizontally until the northern end of the magnetic needle is set opposite the reading that was previously set on the scale.
If the direction correction (or magnetic declination) is less than 3°, i.e. equal to the compass scale division, it is not taken into account when orienting the map.
By the North Star the map will be oriented if the top (north) side of the frame faces the North Star, i.e. north.
5.2. Determining your standing point on the map
The standing point can be determined on the map in various ways: by the nearest landmarks by eye, by measuring the distance traveled, by notching. The method for determining the standing point is selected taking into account the available time, environmental conditions and the required accuracy.
Finding your location according to the nearest landmarks by eye. This is the most common method. On an oriented map, one or two local objects visible on the ground are identified, then they visually determine their location relative to these objects in the directions and distances to them and mark the point of their standing (Fig. 66).
If the standing point on the ground is located next to any local object or its characteristic bend (turn) shown on the map, then the location of the symbol (turning point) of this object will coincide with the desired standing point.
By measuring the distance. This method is most often used when moving along a linear landmark or along it (along a road, clearing, etc.), as well as when moving in azimuth. At the starting point, they record the speedometer reading and start moving. When determining your location, you should plot on the map the distance traveled from the starting point to the stopping point. If the movement is made on foot or on skis, the distance traveled is measured in steps or determined by the time of movement.
In the direction of the landmark and the distance to it the standing point can be determined if only one landmark is identified on the ground and on the map. In this case, on an oriented map, a ruler is applied to the symbol of an identified landmark, it is sighted at a landmark on the ground, a straight line is drawn along the edge of the ruler and the distance from the landmark is marked on it. The point obtained on the line of sight will be the desired standing point.
On target. A target is a straight line passing through the standing point and two other characteristic points of the terrain (landmarks).
If the vehicle is on the target line, its location on the map can be determined in one of the following ways:
Along the alignment and linear reference (Fig. 67). If we are on a linear landmark (road) and in alignment with two local objects, it is enough to draw a straight line on the map through the symbols of local objects (landmarks), in alignment with which there is a standing point on the ground, until it intersects with the road. The point of intersection of the target line with the road will be the desired standing point;
Along the target and lateral landmark. In the figure shown. In the 68 example, the target is the direction of the street of the settlement. To determine the standing point, orient the map along the target line, and then, applying a ruler to a side landmark (a separate tree), sight it and draw a straight line until it intersects with the target line. At the intersection of the target line with the line of sight to the landmark there will be a standing point;
By measured distance. A target line is drawn on the map. Then determine the distance to the nearest landmark located on the target line, and plot this distance on a drawn straight line (from the landmark towards you). The point obtained on the straight line will be the standing point.
serif the standing point is determined under the condition good review terrain and the presence of local objects and landforms on it that can serve as reliable landmarks.
According to the lateral landmark (Fig. 69), a notch is made, as a rule, when moving along the road or along some linear landmark. While on the road, they orient the map, identify on it the image of an object (landmark) that is clearly visible on the ground, apply the sight line to the symbol of the landmark and sight it. Then, without changing the position of the ruler, draw a straight line on the map until it intersects with conventional sign roads. The intersection of the drawn line with the conventional road sign will be the desired standing point.
In this way, they most accurately determine their location on the map if the direction to a side landmark intersects with the direction of movement at a right angle. This case is called perpendicular notching.
Using two or three landmarks (Fig. 70), a survey is most often carried out when your location is not indicated on the map. The map is oriented using a compass and two or three landmarks shown on the map are identified on the ground. Then, as in the previous case, they sight one by one at the selected landmarks and draw directions from the landmarks towards themselves along the ruler. All these directions must intersect at one point, which will be the standing point. This type of serif is often called a back serif.
Notching using measured (constructed) angles (Fig. 71) (Bolotov’s method) is performed in the following sequence:
Using a tower inclinometer or another method, such as a compass, measure the horizontal angles between three landmarks selected around the standing point and clearly depicted on the map;
Construct the measured angles on transparent paper with a randomly drawn point taken as the standing point; these angles can also be constructed by direct sighting using a ruler at selected landmarks on the ground;
Place the paper on the map so that each direction drawn on it passes through the symbol of the landmark to which it was drawn when sighting or plotted according to the measured angles;
Having combined all the directions with the corresponding symbols of landmarks, they pin the point marked on a sheet of paper at which the directions were drawn onto the map. This point will be the standing point.
At reverse directional angles (Fig. 72), notching is most often performed in situations where it is impossible to openly work with the map on the ground. In this case, return azimuths are measured with a compass from the standing point to two or three point landmarks visible on the ground and identified on the map. The values of back azimuths are counted on the compass scale against the pointer located at the rear sight. The measured azimuths are converted to directional angles (see Section 5.3). Then, having constructed these angles with the corresponding landmarks on the map, they draw the directions until they intersect with each other. The point of intersection of the directions will be the standing point.
When determining the standing point using any method of notching, you should choose directions so that they intersect at an angle of no less than 30 and no more than 150°. In all possible cases, check the position of the resulting standing point by sighting on an additional local object (landmark). If a triangle is formed at the intersection of three directions, the standing point is placed in its center. If the triangle is large, when its side is more than 2 mm, the notch must be repeated, having first checked the accuracy of the map orientation.
5.3. Preparation using a data card for movement in azimuths
Data preparation for movement along azimuths is carried out according to large scale map and includes studying the area, choosing a route and landmarks along its sections, determining magnetic azimuths (directional angles) of directions and distances between selected landmarks, recording data on a map or drawing up a movement diagram (table).
When exploring the area in the direction of movement, they mainly evaluate its permeability, camouflage and protective properties, determine difficult and impassable obstacles and ways to bypass them.
Choosing a route and landmarks. The outline of the route depends on the nature of the terrain, the presence of landmarks on it and the conditions of the upcoming movement. The main requirement for the route is that it provide quick and, in a combat situation, covert access to the specified point.
The route is chosen in such a way that it has a minimum number of turns. The route includes roads, clearings and other linear landmarks, the direction of which coincides with the direction of movement. This will make it easier to maintain the directions of movement. Route turning points are marked at landmarks that can be easily identified on the ground (for example, tower-type buildings, road intersections, bridges, overpasses, geodetic signs).
When choosing landmarks on sections of the route, it is necessary to take into account the method of maintaining the direction of movement and the accuracy that it provides. For example, the accuracy of maintaining the direction of movement using a compass is 0.1 of the distance traveled. If the distance between landmarks on a section of the route is 6 km, then when reaching the next landmark the deviation may be 600 m. Finding a landmark on the ground in this case will take a lot of time.
It has been experimentally established that the distances between j landmarks along the route should not exceed 1-2 km when moving during the day on foot, and when driving by car and maintaining directions according to the gyro-semi-compass - 6-10 km. For driving at night, landmarks are marked along the route more often. To ensure a secret exit to a specified point, the route is marked along hollows, tracts of vegetation and other objects that provide camouflage of movement. Avoid traveling on high ridges and open areas. An approximate route selection option is shown in Fig. 73.
Determination of magnetic azimuths. The magnetic azimuth of the direction to a local object can be determined from the directional angle measured on the map or the true azimuth of this direction. When converting the directional angle (true azimuth) into magnetic azimuth, the direction correction (magnetic declination) for a given map sheet is taken into account. The relationship between magnetic azimuth, directional angle and true azimuth is shown in Fig. 74.
Directional angle (a) - angle between north direction vertical line of the coordinate grid on the map and the direction towards the object (landmark), counted clockwise. It can have a value from 0 to 360°.
True azimuth (A) is the angle between the north direction of the true meridian (the side of the map frame) and the direction to the object, measured clockwise. True azimuth, like the directional angle, can have values from 0 to 360 0.
Meridian convergence (Sb) is the angle between the north direction of the true meridian and the vertical grid line. On topographic maps of the USSR, the convergence of the meridians does not exceed ±3°.
Magnetic declination (Sk) is the angle between the north direction of the true meridian and the direction of the magnetic meridian (magnetic needle). If the northern end of the magnetic needle deviates from the true meridian to the east, the magnetic declination is considered positive, and to the west - negative.
Direction correction (DC) is the angle between the direction of the vertical grid line and the magnetic meridian. It is equal to the algebraic difference between the magnetic declination and the convergence of the meridians:
Mon = (± Sk) - (± Sat).
Data on magnetic declination, meridian convergence, and direction correction are placed under the south side of the frame of each sheet of a large-scale topographic map. The transition from directional angles (true azimuths) measured on the map to magnetic azimuths is carried out according to the formulas:
Am=a -(±PN);
Am=A-(±Sk).
Measuring using a directional angle map. Directional angles of directions to local objects (landmarks) are measured on the map with a protractor or an artillery circle. They provide angle measurement accuracy with an error of ±1-2°. For more accurate measurement of angles, a chord angle meter is used (see Section 6.2).
Using a protractor, the directional angle on the map is measured in the following sequence:
The reference point at which the directional angle is measured is connected by a straight line to the standing point so that the straight line intersects at least one vertical line of the coordinate grid. If the landmark and the standing point are located in the same grid square, then this line is continued until it intersects with the vertical grid lines of other squares;
Apply the protractor to the grid line, as shown in Fig. 75, and the value of the directional angle is measured using the protractor.
In our example, the directional angle from the point A(single stone) per point IN(individual tree) is 60°, and the directional angle from the point A to point C (geodetic point) - 302°.
The artillery circle is a celluloid plate, on the outer cut of which there is a scale in protractor divisions. The price of one division is 0-10. Large divisions corresponding to 1-00 are numbered from 0 to 60; in this case, a row of red numbers is applied in an ascending order clockwise, and a row of black numbers - counterclockwise.
When measuring the directional angle, the artillery circle is installed on the map so that its center coincides with the intersection point of the line of the determined direction and the vertical line of the coordinate grid, and the zero stroke with the northern direction of this line. Then a reading is taken on the red scale of the circle against the line of the determined direction.
Measurement using a true azimuth map performed with a protractor or artillery circle in the same way as measuring directional angles. In this case, the angle is measured at the point of intersection of the true meridian with the direction to the object. The line of the true meridian in this case can be either one of the sides of the map frame - western or eastern, or a line drawn parallel to it.
When converting true azimuth to magnetic, the magnetic declination value is added to the measured angle if it is western, or this value is subtracted if the declination is eastern. The resulting magnetic direction azimuths are written on a map (see Fig. 73), in a table or on a route diagram.
Measuring distances. Distances between landmarks selected along the route are measured along straight lines using a measuring compass and a linear scale or a ruler with millimeter divisions. If the route is planned along a hilly (mountainous) area, then a correction for the relief is introduced into the distances measured on the map (see Table 6).
Drawing up a diagram and table of movement by azimuths. The diagram is drawn up in the following sequence:
The starting point, landmarks at the turning points and the end point of the route are transferred from the map to a blank sheet of paper. The location of landmarks on the diagram should be similar to their position on the map. All landmarks are depicted on the diagram with the same symbols as on the map;
Landmarks transferred from the map to the diagram are numbered and connected by straight lines;
Against each line, the initial data for movement is written down in the form of a fraction: the numerator is magnetic azimuths, the denominator is distances in meters. If movement along azimuths will be made on foot and the leader’s step size is known, then the distances in meters are converted into pairs of steps and written out on the diagram in parentheses;
Draw a north-south arrow on the diagram and additionally show landmarks to the side of the route, as well as in the direction of the route, which can be used during movement as intermediate or auxiliary landmarks.
In relation to Fig. Table 24 will have the following content (Table 10).
Table 10
|
Point number |
Track section |
Magnetic azimuth (Am), deg |
Distance, m |
Distance, a couple of steps |
|
Barn-mound |
1230 |
|||
|
Kurgan - forester's house |
1250 |
|||
|
Forester's house - crossroads |
||||
|
Crossroads - bridge |
In cases where it is necessary to maintain only the general direction of movement, for example, the direction of advance, a movement diagram (table) is not drawn up. The azimuth of the direction of movement is determined directly on the ground using a compass and is announced orally.
We often go hiking with friends. We visited different parts of Russia, for example, in the mountains, the coastal part of the Black Sea, Karelia, Kaluga region, Yaroslavl region. An integral part of my travels is terrain orientation(where would we be without him;)), so over time I honed my ability to control the situation. And by the way, sometimes they were extreme, but I somehow got out of them :)
Orientation on the map
On a global scale, navigating using a map (globe) is as easy as shelling pears. There's little there symbols and small details, which cannot be said about maps of areas (see map below), or maps of regions, countries, villages...
The ability to simply and quickly find out the location of an object on a large scale is not difficult, it is only important to know the coordinates of the required place.
But on the ground, orientation is influenced by several important factors:
- your location on the map;
- nearest visible landmarks;
- Availability additional materials(compass, clock, and others).
How to navigate on the map
First of all you need determine the cardinal directions and combine them with the map. Then, determine the place where you are and correlate it with the map. This can be done thanks to landmarks(For example, lone tree, large rock, river, etc.), and also do not forget about cardinal directions.
There are other ways to navigate on the map:
- orientation along terrain lines (roads, rivers);
- navigation only by compass;
- measuring the distance traveled;
- marks on the map as you move through the area.
Also, it is necessary to study movement along azimuths.
Azimuth is the angle between objects relative to your position. So. for example, if you are at school, you will have to walk to the spring at an angle of 45 degrees (see map).
One line is drawn towards the north, and the second should cross necessary object(in our case this is a spring).
Location orientation consists in determining the cardinal directions, one’s own position relative to the surrounding area and the direction of further movement. We can say that orientation allows you to track the accuracy of a previously laid route.
During a hike, especially if the path runs through unfamiliar terrain, it is important to be able to navigate in order to follow the laid out route and not get lost. The most popular among tourists and military personnel, quite deservedly, is orientation on the map. The map is generally quite useful thing on a hike, because with its help you can quickly find your bearings and identify deviations from the route. Of course, it is desirable in this case. However, if you don’t have it, you can do without it. Let's consider how to navigate the map correctly.
Map orientation can be general or detailed character.
General orientation consists in approximately determining your location, movement vector and time to cover the route. As a rule, it is used when the route has already been laid out in advance. To monitor compliance with the path, for example, in .
Detailed orientation- this is an accurate determination of your location and direction of movement on the map. Plays an important role when crossing places where deviation from a given route can be dangerous. For example, during mountain crossings or in a critical situation.
When orienting on the ground, it is important to be able to quickly and accurately determine the cardinal directions, measure distances to landmarks and direction angles on the map and on the ground, and draw up a movement pattern in azimuths.
Types of landmarks
Landmarks necessary to determine the location relative to them and adjust the route. They are objects or relief forms that are easily distinguishable by their shape or color. There are area, linear and point:
- Area landmarks. They are characterized mainly by the fact that they occupy a significant area. This includes settlements, reservoirs, swamps, forests, etc. They are easy to identify and remember even at the stage of preparing for a hike and drawing up a route.
- Linear landmarks. These are structures and relief forms that are distinguished by their length and relatively small width. This includes: roads, canals and rivers, pipelines, power lines (power lines), ravines, canyons, etc. Well suited for monitoring compliance with a given direction when moving.
- Point landmarks. They are distinguished by their small area, but are marked on maps: buildings, towers, intersections, mountain peaks and factory chimneys and other objects. Used to determine your own location. They allow you to accurately indicate the destination or a specific place, square.
Ways to orientate a map
Essentially, the process of navigating the terrain using a map consists of two stages. First - orientation of the map itself relative to the cardinal directions, the second - . Let's look at the first stage.
Any map, in addition to displaying the relief and legend, has cardinal directions. As a rule, north is placed at the top of the map, south at the bottom, respectively, west will be on the left and east on the right, but other variations are possible. Map orientation lies in its placement in such a way that the designations of the cardinal directions on it would coincide with the real directions. There are several ways to navigate.
Orienting the map using a compass
The easiest way, since you don’t need to look for any landmarks to use it. In this connection, it is carried out in a closed area, poor in landmarks. To orient the map, place it on one of its vertical lines. For example, to the lines of the kilometer grid, or to the frame, a compass so that the direction of the compass arrow coincides with the cardinal directions on the map. Usually in such cases the north end of the compass needle coincides with the top edge of the map. At the same time, there are some subtleties that depend on which part of the map you apply the compass to.
So, if the device was attached to a kilometer grid, after placing it, the map, as already mentioned, should be rotated in a horizontal plane so that the top of the map frame coincides with the north direction of the compass. In this case, the magnetic needle of the device will deviate from the north mark by the amount of the correction. The correction in this case will be the sum of the angle of convergence of the meridians and the angle of magnetic declination.
If the compass is placed relative to the map frame, or the true meridian, then the correction in this case will simply be magnetic declination angle.
In the case when the correction is positive, the compass needle is located to the right of the north mark, and if it is negative, then to the left.
Orienting the map along terrain lines
To do this, it is necessary that linear objects be within sight. For example, railways, power lines, etc. The map should be rotated so that the image of this linear object coincides with its real direction. All objects that are located to the left and right of this object must coincide with their images on the map.
Orienting the map by directions to a landmark
Used if you do not have a compass at hand and there are no linear objects nearby. For orientation, it is necessary that the place where the observer is located be determined on the map, and from this place some landmark, also displayed on the map, should be visible. This way, you can draw a mental segment and also mentally put it on the map. If your imagination fails, you can use a ruler.
Finding your location
Your location The easiest way to determine this is if you are at some noticeable landmark displayed on the map. For example, a bridge, structure, rock, etc. The place where this landmark is located will be the desired point on the map. If this is not possible, then you can estimate your location using nearby landmarks by eye. Or by measuring the distance traveled, by notching on a local object, or by back notching. There are other ways.
Serif on a local subject
Measuring distances
By nearby landmarks
Back serif
How to identify a landmark and compare it with a map?
Compare the area with the map- this means recognizing the surrounding terrain in the images represented by the map. Relief is of great importance when passing the route. This is especially true for hiking in dangerous terrain - swamps or mountains. Without seeing the dangerous area, you risk leaving the safe route and, for example, falling into the abyss. To identify an observed object on a map, it is necessary to at least approximately calculate the distance to it and the azimuth from the north or other known and specific direction. Then, draw this distance on the map, to scale, adjusted for the established deviation. After this, as a rule, the object is already identified visually.
If, on the contrary, you need to find an object on the ground indicated on the map, then you should perform the following sequence of actions:
- Orient the map;
- Determine your own location;
- Calculate the distance to the desired object from the map;
- Determine the directional angle and azimuth of the desired object and perform a visual search on the ground in the desired direction.
Note that when comparing a map with the terrain, you should not only identify the observed objects on it, but also study the features of the relief. Since its shape greatly influences the passage of the route, during the construction of which errors could have been made. As they say: “It was smooth on paper, but they forgot about the ravines - how to walk along them?” In this case, you will have to rebuild the route on the spot, using updated data. 
What to do if the direction is lost and there is no landmark?
It also happens that exact landmarks cannot be found, in which case there may be several location options. If you have lost your direction, then you need to return to the exact place where you were. Then you should pull yourself together and start moving in the right direction again, but at the same time check the map more often. This option is the simplest from a technical standpoint. Also, you can identify large objects, for example, rivers, ridges, forests, etc. and go in azimuth to any of the specified places. After this, you need to get your bearings, identify the deviation and the distance traveled in order to return to the route. It makes sense to climb onto a hill in order to better inspect everything and reconnoiter the situation.
Routes can run through places where there are no landmarks at all. In this case, it is important to be able to anticipate such sections and determine them in advance, even at the planning stage of the trip, so that you can overcome them without problems.
Confident orientation and maintaining a given direction of movement on the map largely depends on preparation for orienteering. The main task in this case is a preliminary study of the conditions for orientation along the route of movement and the advance preparation of the data necessary to control the correctness of movement.
Preparing for orienteering includes, depending on the situation, the following activities in whole or in part: selecting and studying the route, raising it on the map, measuring the length of the route and dividing it into separate sections, determining the azimuths of the directions of movement in areas difficult to navigate on the map, checking the serviceability of the compass (gyro-semi-compass ) and speedometer.
Selecting and studying the route. The route of movement is selected on the map, taking into account the conditions of the situation and the nature of the terrain. Preference is given to paved roads.
The study of a given or selected route of movement is carried out in the following sequence:
They look at the route on the map, understand the characteristics of the roads and the features of the surrounding area, establish the presence of roadside structures that can be landmarks, mark on the map areas where the conditions for orientation should be clarified;
In the marked areas, local objects and landforms that can serve as reliable landmarks are studied in detail; Particularly carefully study the places where the route turns, intersections and forks in roads, entrances to and exits from populated areas;
Along the entire route, control landmarks are chosen every 5-10 km; they should be the most stable objects in the area and easily recognizable when approaching them.
Ascent of the route on the map. The route is marked on the map with a colored pencil, usually brown. Control landmarks are circled. A broken line is drawn along the route, which should not cover the road sign, as well as, if possible, the signs of local objects along it. Then the distances between control landmarks are measured, and corrections for the relief and tortuosity of the route are introduced into the measured distances (see Table 6). For example, if the correction factor is 1.1, then on a map of scale 1:100000 a ten-kilometer section is plotted as a segment equal to 9 cm. After this, the distances between landmarks are converted into speedometer readings and signed at the control landmarks (Fig. 76).
When preparing to move in conditions unfavorable for orientation, magnetic azimuths of the directions of movement are determined and marked on the map so that you can quickly move on to orientation along the way using a compass (gyro-semi-compass).
Orientation along the way. Before starting to move at the starting point, they record the speedometer readings, the start time of movement, compare the map with the terrain and determine the direction of the journey.
While driving, keep the map oriented in front of you, constantly compare it with the terrain, monitor the passage of designated landmarks, checking the speedometer readings. In this way, continuous orientation is carried out, which ensures that the specified direction of movement is correctly maintained.
In combat, maintaining the direction of movement is carried out according to landmarks indicated directly on the ground and well studied in advance.
On the march, the map must be consulted when approaching an intersection or fork in the road. Approximately 200-500 m before the turn, the driver is indicated the location of the upcoming turn and the direction of further movement. For example: “After 500 m, turn right into a clearing.”
When entering a forest or an area where there are few landmarks, record the speedometer readings. This allows you to determine your location at any time by the distance traveled, which, if necessary, is plotted on the map.
All crew members are usually involved in observing landmarks along the way, especially when driving at night. To do this, they are first introduced to the route, and during the march they are warned in advance about the upcoming appearance of a landmark.
Features of orientation when moving in various conditions. Orientation when driving at night. In anticipation of a march at night, the route is chosen so that it passes along roads or along some linear local features. Control landmarks along the route are marked at closer distances from each other than when moving during the day.
Your location on the map while moving is most often determined by the distance traveled, setting it aside from the starting point or reference point in the direction of the movement.
When planning off-road movement, data for movement in azimuths is first prepared. Route turns are marked at local objects that can be easily identified at night.
Orientation when moving in the forest. The route of movement in the forest is usually marked along roads and clearings. Directions of movement are usually maintained according to azimuths, especially when moving on foot or on skis. One’s location in the forest is determined by the distance traveled, so on the way it is necessary to more often monitor the correct direction of movement and the distance traveled along the route.
Orientation when moving in the desert (steppe). The route of movement in a desert area is chosen so that it includes the landmarks available on the ground: roads, dried river beds, individual mounds, wells, oases, etc. The movement is carried out along azimuths, which are prepared in advance. The general direction of movement can be maintained according to the celestial bodies or according to the trail of your car, if the movement occurs in a straight line.
Orientation when driving in mountainous areas. The route of movement in mountainous areas is usually planned along ravines, mountain passes and passes. Prominent mountain peaks, saddles, cliffs, rocks, screes and other forms of relief can be identified as landmarks. Mountain rivers and streams flowing in valleys are good landmarks. In addition to landmarks along the route, it is useful to mark auxiliary landmarks visible from many points along the route. They can be the ledges of a mountain range, snow-capped mountain peaks. Auxiliary landmarks are used to maintain the general direction of movement.
Orientation when moving in close-up locality. The route through a large populated area is usually planned along the main and arterial streets. Such idiots clearly stand out on the map. Landmarks along the route may include squares, overpasses, streets, monuments, churches and other prominent local objects.
When approaching a populated area, carefully compare the map with the terrain and, as accurately as possible, determine the place of entry into the populated area. In the populated area itself, the map is oriented according to the direction of the street along which people are moving.
When driving through a large populated area, timely warning of the driver about turns on the route is important, since driving through the intended turn can lead to loss of orientation.
Orientation in areas that have undergone significant destruction. In an area of massive destruction, the map will often not correspond to the terrain, which will significantly complicate orientation. Therefore, for orientation in such areas, data for movement in azimuths is prepared in advance. The most stable landmarks in areas of destruction are paved roads, railways, typical forms of relief (tops of mountains and hills, ridges, saddles, hollows).
When navigating while moving through heavily altered terrain, you will often have to avoid various obstacles and determine your location by the remains of destroyed local objects. In these conditions, ground-based navigation equipment (see Chapter 6) will be widely used, which allows you to confidently navigate the terrain in any conditions.
Restoring lost orientation. When operating in unfamiliar terrain, there may be cases when, due to insufficient navigation skills, orientation will be lost. The first sign of loss of orientation is that they cannot find objects marked on the map and cannot at least approximately determine their location on it. To restore your orientation, you must try to find your location on the map by comparing the map with the terrain, having previously oriented the map to the sides of the horizon. The area in which the stopping place is supposed to be located can be determined by restoring at least approximately the direction of movement from the last, confidently identified landmark and the distance traveled from it. If it is difficult to restore orientation by comparing the map with the terrain, you can use the following methods.
Graphic definition on a map of the location area. On an oriented map, a straight line is drawn from the symbol of the last landmark passed, which was confidently identified, corresponding to the direction of the last section of the route. Setting aside the distance traveled from the landmark on a straight line, the far boundary of the location area is established. The nearest border is determined within 3/4 of the distance traveled from the last landmark. For example (Fig. 77), a unit, while marching, reached the northern outskirts of the village of Osetr (speedometer reading 61.3). Then, moving to the village of Kholm, which is 12.4 km from the Osetr point, a bridge over the Uvod River was planned as an intermediate landmark. At 4 km of the journey, the driver of the car mistakenly turned left onto a country road, on which there was also a bridge, mistaken for the intended intermediate landmark. When the number 73.7 appeared on the speedometer, the commander discovered a loss of orientation. Judging by the distance traveled, the unit should have been in the village of Kholm, but in fact it ended up in the forest. Having specified the average direction of movement from the Osetr point using a compass, the commander drew it on the map, plotted the distance traveled on it (12 km) and from the resulting point limited the estimated area of his location to a radius of 3 km (1/4 of the distance traveled). After a thorough study of the designated area, a fork in the road was discovered - the place of an erroneous turn from the route. Having made sure that the unit is located on the country road indicated on the map, it is not difficult to determine the point of its standing, for example, at the nearest fork in the road, and outline the path to the final point or exit to the route.
According to a linear landmark (Fig. 78). The unit, moving along an overgrown forest road not marked on the map, reached a forest clearing. Based on the distance traveled, the commander determined the probable location of the unit. The map shows several similar clearings in this area. The measured magnetic azimuth of the direction of the clearing into which the unit entered turned out to be 6°. Such glades, elongated in the azimuth direction 6°, shown on map three. The commander carefully studied them and determined that one of the clearings was in a ravine, the other was located in a saddle, and the third was on a flat area of terrain. These features of the location of the clearings on the terrain made it possible to quickly understand the situation and determine the standing point (the clearing on the saddle).
We have already said that no description of the area can give the reader the correct idea of it, which gives topographic map. It is the map that serves as a ground guide when driving on and off roads, day and night in unfamiliar terrain. Knowledge of it and the ability to use it is necessary for everyone, but especially for travelers, tourists, prospectors, geologists, surveyors, and military personnel. You need to be able to compare it with the terrain, but most importantly, be able to navigate the terrain using a map.
Let us remind you once again that orientation on a map (aerial photograph) consists of orienting the map, determining your location point on it (standing point) and comparing the map with the terrain.
What is map orientation? Orienting a map means giving it a position in the horizontal plane such that all directions on it are parallel to the corresponding directions on the ground, and the upper (north) side of its frame faces north. Orientation Maps are made mainly based on terrain lines and landmarks. And only where they are absent or not visible, the map is oriented using a compass.
Orientation of the map according to terrain lines and landmarks is carried out as follows. If you are in an area where there is a straight section of road, it is recommended that you orient the map along the road. To do this, the map is rotated so that the image of the road on it coincides with the direction of the road on the ground, and the image of all other local objects located to the right and left of the road are on the same sides on the map. Figure 51 shows two options for orienting the map along the road (a) and towards
landmark (b). The advantage of this method of orienting the map along the road is that it ensures fast and accurate orientation and does not require corrections. It is the main way to navigate when driving cars and other equipment. In closed (wooded) areas, as well as in areas where there are few or no linear landmarks, this method is not acceptable. In this case, the map is oriented in directions to the landmark.
If your location on the map is known (for example, a road intersection, bridge, mound, etc.), then the map is oriented towards any visible landmark indicated on the map. To do this, apply a ruler (or pencil) to two points on the map ( dot our position - the crossroads in Figure 51, b and the windmill - a landmark) and, looking along the ruler, turn with the map so that the selected landmark is on the line of sight.
If this is not possible on the ground, then a compass is used to orient the map. There are three ways to orient the map using a compass.
First way. If the magnetic declination for a given map sheet is less than 3°, it is oriented by compass without taking into account the magnetic declination. In this case, the map is given a horizontal position. Place a compass on it in the direction N - S along the meridian (western or eastern frame of the map) so that the letter “C” is in the north of the map, and release the brake on the magnetic needle. Carefully rotating the map together with the compass, we bring the letter “C” on the compass dial to the end of the magnetic needle - the map is oriented.
Second way. If the magnetic declination for a given map sheet is more than 3°, then the map is oriented using a compass, taking into account the magnetic declination. In this case, everyone does the same as in the first method. But then, by rotating the map, they bring under the northern end of the magnetic needle that division on the compass dial that corresponds to the magnitude and sign of the magnetic declination indicated in the border design of the map. Figure 52, a shows the first step - how to correctly install the compass on the map when it is not yet oriented. Then the second position of the map is shown (Fig. 52, b), when it is rotated so that the northern end of the compass needle coincides with the letter “C” (north) on the dial. In this case, the map is oriented, but without taking into account the magnetic declination. In Figure 52, c, the third and last action is performed, that is, the map is rotated so that the northern end of the compass needle coincides with the number H-15° on the compass dial, that is, the corresponding eastern magnetic declination, and if it were the western magnetic declination , then the map would have to be rotated as shown in Figure 52, d.
Third way. Often when working on the ground, the map is folded so that the sides of its frame are wrapped inside it. In this case, to orient the map, instead of the side of its frame, you can use the vertical lines of the kilometer grid, on one of which a compass is installed according to the same rules as on the side of the frame. In this case, for accurate orientation of the map, install it so that the northern end of the compass needle shows the number on the compass dial corresponding to the value and sign of the correction (P).
The next element of terrain orientation using a map is determining your location. Various methods can be used here as well.
On local subjects. The easiest way to do this is when you are next to some landmark shown on the map (a crossroads, a separate stone, a characteristic ledge of a forest, etc.). The location of the symbol on the map will indicate the desired point of our location.
Based on the nearest landmarks by eye. This is the simplest and main way to approximately determine your location on a map. In this case, the card must be oriented and identified on both sides.
one or two landmarks in the area. Then they determine by eye their location relative to these landmarks on the ground and plot their location on the map. For example, having stopped in an open area (Fig. 53), you noticed that a tree is visible in the direction of your movement, and to the left at a right angle is a turning pole of the communication line. Having oriented the map, you found on it the image of a tree and the angle of rotation of the communication line. Then, having determined by eye that the tree is located at a distance of approximately 400 m from you, and the angle of rotation of the communication line is at a distance of 200 m, we will plot these distances on the map so that there is approximately a straight line between them. You will find your location on the map.
Measuring the distance traveled. This method is used when moving along a road, path, clearing or along any other terrain line indicated on the map (river bank, forest edge, communication line, etc.), as well as when moving in a straight line in any specific direction ( for example, to a distant landmark, and in poor visibility conditions - in the direction of a given azimuth). It is especially useful in conditions of poor visibility and in areas that are closed or poor in landmarks. Having started moving from any object identified on the ground and on the map (bridge, crossroads, edge of the forest, etc.), you count pairs of steps. In this case, your location point can always be determined by plotting on the map scale the distance you have traveled from the starting point in a given direction of movement.
Example. Having walked along the road (Fig. 54) 200 m from the bridge in the direction of the trigonometric point, the tourist stopped. Setting aside the distance traveled from the bridge, he received his location on the map.
Serif according to landmarks. This method is most suitable for open areas and in conditions of good visibility. When moving along a road or along any linear landmark, marking your location point is carried out as follows (Fig. 55).
We orient the map and identify on it landmark, visible on the ground from a given point. Then we place a ruler (or pencil) on the map to the image of this landmark and, without disrupting the orientation of the map, rotate it around the symbol. The point of intersection of the line of sight along the ruler with the image of the road on which we are located will be the desired point of our location on the map. Determining our location point is simplified if the selected landmark is perpendicular to the direction of movement or in line with some other landmark, also marked on the map and visible from this point (Fig. 56). Then the desired point of our location on the map is determined by the intersection of the road on which we are with a straight line drawn through a landmark perpendicular to the line of our movement. In the second case - with a straight line passing through both landmarks forming the target. When drawing these lines, you do not even need to orient the map or sight the landmarks using a ruler.
When driving off roads and in directions not indicated on the map, your location is determined by resecting at least two landmarks. To do this, find on the ground in different directions, at an angle of at least 30° from each other and no more than 150°, two local objects that are on the map. The map is oriented according to the compass, and then one by one sights at each landmark and draws directions from the landmarks towards oneself along a ruler. The intersection of these directions on the map will be our location point (Fig. 57).
The third element of orientation on the map is comparing it with the terrain. To compare a map with the terrain means to find on it an image of local objects and relief elements located around the point of our location and, conversely, to identify the objects shown on the map on the ground. You have to constantly compare the map with the terrain when orienting it and working with it on the ground. This allows you to quickly and completely study the terrain, identify changes that have occurred in it, clarify the location of observed targets, landmarks and other important objects, determine the distance to them, etc.
In order to find on a map an image of an object observed on the ground, you need to:
Orient the map and determine your location on it;
While maintaining the orientation of the map, turn to face the object whose position you need to find on the map;
Mentally draw a line from your location point to an object visible on the ground, estimate the distance to it by eye and plot it on the map scale from your location point in the direction of the object;
At a set distance, find an image of the identified object on the map.
Example. In Figure 58, from our location, a height is visible behind the forest. On the map behind the forest in this direction, behind the forest symbol, several heights are shown. Having oriented the map and applying a ruler to the point of our location, we sight at the height visible on the ground. By drawing a line along the ruler, we determine what height is visible behind the forest.
To solve the inverse problem, that is, to recognize the object shown on the map on the ground, we also need to orient the map and find our location on it. Then we determine by eye the distance to the desired object using the map and direction on him and using this data we find him on the ground.
These are the basic elements of navigating the terrain using a map and compass. A few words about navigating on the map while on the move (by car, motorcycle).
Orientation using a map in motion comes down to finding landmarks shown on the map along the route of movement. Orientation in a car has its own characteristics. Firstly, it cannot be used inside or near the machine. compass; secondly, the speed of movement creates inconvenience in comparing the map with the terrain; and finally, visibility of the area from the car is limited.
In order to confidently move along the intended path and accurately reach the final destination, you need to prepare a map before the march and determine the data for the movement. Usually, the route of movement is drawn on the map with a dotted line. Then the terrain along the route is mapped and landmarks are selected against which the correct direction of movement will be checked. When choosing them, preference is given to individual details of the relief, as well as local objects that are poorly susceptible to change. Landmarks are selected both on the route itself and on the sides of the route at a distance at which you can clearly see them while driving. Landmarks are marked at all turns of the route and on long straight sections. If terrain semi-closed and traffic will take place on dirt roads, then the distance between landmarks should not exceed 1-3 km. After this, the distance to the landmarks from the starting point is determined by an accrual total (that is, such and such a landmark at such and such a kilometer, etc.) and is converted into readings from the car’s speedometer (a device that shows the number of kilometers traveled by the car). It is recommended to label these distances on the map. Prepared in this way, the map, for ease of use while on the move, is folded “accordion-style” along the route (that is, folded along the length of the route several times and easily opened at any section of the route you need). While moving, the map must always be held in front of you in an oriented position, that is, rotated along the axis of movement. If movement is carried out off the road, then the map is oriented according to distant landmarks.
Work on the route to maintain the route comes down to finding landmarks on the ground, indicated on the map, and to sequential movement from one landmark to another. The presence of a speedometer on the car makes it possible to take into account the distance traveled, which makes it much easier to find the intended landmarks on the ground.
So, we have examined the basic issues of orientation on the ground with and without a map, with and without a compass, and now we can begin to study methods of movement on the ground, and the main one is movement in azimuths.